Introduction -- Part I. Colonial Era: 1. Trent and penance in the colonial period -- Part II. Nineteenth Century: 2. The confessional seal: legal and apologetic dimensions of the sacrament of penance ; 3. Sin, repentance, and confession in nineteenth-century American Protestant polemics ; 4. American Catholic theology of penance in nineteenth-century America ; 5. American Catholic practice of confession in nineteenth-century America -- Part III. Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries: 6. History, Pius X, and the practice of confession, 1900-20 ; 7. Confession, continuity, and reforms, 1920-60 ; 8. Confession, the new psychology, and birth control, 1920-60 ; 9. From confession to reconciliation, Vatican II to 2015 -- Conclusion