Introduction / Nikki R. Keddie -- Part I. Scholars : the ulama. Some observations on the development of the Ottoman learned hierarchy / Richard Repp ; The Ottoman ulema and the tanzimat / Richard L. Chambers ; The religious establishment in Husainid Tunisia / Leon Carl Brown ; The Moroccan ulama, 1860-1912 : an introduction / Edmund Burke ; Profile of a nineteenth-century Moroccan scholar / Kenneth Brown ; The ulama of Cairo in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries / Afaf Lutfi Al-sayyid Marsot ; Nonideological responses of the Egyptian ulama to modernization / Daniel Crecelius ; The roots of the ulama's power in modern Iran / Nikki R. Keddie ; The oppositional role of the ulama in twentieth-century Iran / Hamid Algar ; Activism of the ulama in Pakistan / Aziz Ahmad -- Part II. Saints and Sufis : popular religious institutions. A short history of the Khalwati order of dervishes / B.G. Martin ; Doctor and saint / Ernest Gellner ; The Hamadsha / Vincent Crapanzano ; Religious symbolism and social change: the drama of Husain / Gustav Thaiss ; Mahdis, Walis, and new men in the Sudan / John Voll ; Variation in religious observance among Islamic women / Robert A. Fernea & Elizabeth W. Fernea