Wildlife Ecology 113 
Aldo Leopold 
 
Wildlife Food and Cover in Terms of Plant Succession 
 
Generalized 
stages 
 
FORB 
 
GRASS 
 
Peat 
swamp 
snartweed 
giant ragweed 
false buckwheat 
 
Sand 
"island" 
sandbur 
(foxtail)-- 
tickle grass 
 
* goldenrod*---.      (sheep sorrel) 
w%aster  -. "       goldenrod  -- 
Joe-pye      -     horseweed 
nettle 
 
* Carex 
bluci oint 
(redtop) 
 
BRUSH 
 
- red dogwood 
.poison sumac 
bush willow 
 
CLIMAX 
 
etamarack 
 
Oak- 
hickory 
 
Prairie 
 
ragweed -- - --ragweed 
->(foxtail)--     - -- foxtail 
 
(mullein)' 
vervain 
aster     .. . -- 
 
panic grass 
bluestem 4- 
Indian grass 
sandcherry 
pincherry 
sweet fern 
hazel /--" 
blueberry 
black oak <-. 
Jack pine 
white pine 
 
goldenrod 
lead plant 
aster  /  -...... 
 
asque flower 
luestem 
bluograss, etc. 
ose 
rairie willow 
ur oak 
edge) 
 
Northern 
hardwoods 
fireweed 
 
bracken 
NZq'aster 
goldenrod 
(bluegrass) 
) *"(white clover) 
raspberry 
red & rot. 
maple 
aspen 
white birch 
sugar maple 
yellow birch 
beech 
hemlock 
basswood 
 
Agricultural 
counterparts 
(GRAINS) 
(ANNThUAL 
LEGUMES) 
(ALFALFA) 
(SWEET CLOVER) 
(WHITE CLOVER) 
(PAS TURE 
GRASSES) 
(RASPBERRY) 
(BLACKBERRY) 
(ORCHARDS) 
 
K*.Ca^L3            C&AAu.'4 A1',                   U" %M.YL   
       t 
Note: Intrudod exotic species which have escaped to the wild are in parenthesis
and underlined. 
Cultivated species, mostly exotic, are in parenthesis and capitals. 
The bracket under prairie indicates that the three stages coexisted as a
climax. 
 
P