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The Fourth Age of the World has its inception with the advent of David, and ends with the Babylonian captivity, a period of 484 years, according to the Hebrew teachers, and of 485 years according to the seventy interpreters. David was the first king out of the tribe of Judah over which he reigned at Hebron for 47 years; but over all Israel he ruled for 33 years. This Fourth Age begins with David, not as king of Israel, but as the first king of the tribe of Judah. To him was made the express prophecy that Christ would be born of the tribe of Judah. His deeds and history appear throughout the entire second Book of Kings, &c.1 When David learned of Saul’s death, he and his relatives mourned him; and he fasted and wrote a song of lamentation in which he acknowledged Saul as the first king of Israel and as his lord.2
David, a prince among prophets, son of Jesse of the tribe of Judah, first king of the Hebrews, began his reign over them 941 years after the death of Abraham; and altogether at Hebron and Jerusalem he reigned 40 years. He was dauntless, of a beautiful countenance and rosy complexion, of great strength, and of still greater intellect. Before the beginning of the kingdom he slew the strongest man, the giant of the Philistines, with a slingshot. In behalf of his subjugated people, he accepted leadership, and was always the first in places of danger and risk. When he assumed the reins of government, he first besieged Jerusalem, and thereafter drove out the captured Canaanites and Jebusites. And he dispersed all the Palestinians and other enemies. Finally, full of days and good deeds, he went to rest in the Lord at the age of 70 years and was buried properly at Jerusalem by his son Solomon.
Solomon (in the Year of the World 4165)3, a son of David by Bathsheba,4 the second king of the Hebrews, began his reign while his father still lived, and he ruled 40 years. Soon after he was born, his father gave him to Nathan the prophet, a very learned and holy man, to bring up and educate. When Solomon became a young man, his father, because of his good conduct and obedience, and in accordance with the command of the Lord, preferred him in the kingdom to his rejected brothers. Solomon fought the enemy and secured peace. Afterwards he built the most celebrated temple in the world, and in good fortune he excelled all other kings. He died at the age of 94 years, and was buried at Jerusalem.
When Queen Sheba (Saba) heard of the fame of Solomon she came from other parts of the world to hear his wisdom. And he satisfied her on all the questions that she asked. After she saw the order of his house, and his people, she praised him greatly; and they gave one another great presents. Solomon erected a throne of ivory which was approached by six steps; for all the people craved to look upon Solomon’s countenance. Sheba was a prophetess, and was therefore called a sibyl. For she prophesied from the wood of the holy cross, and of the destruction of the Jews. She held the one true God in high esteem.5
On the advice of the Lord, David and his people went to Hebron. There, in his youth, he was elected king of the tribe of Judah and anointed by Samuel. Ish-bosheth (Hysboseth),6 the son of Saul, was, through the procurement of Abner, his uncle, made king of the other eleven tribes; and he reigned two years. And now assembled the armies of David and Joab, his commander, as did also the forces of Ish-bosheth and Abner, his commander. And out of sheer willfulness twelve men on the one side fought with twelve men from the other, and they slew one another at a single stroke. Then those who were with Abner were defeated and fled; and Asahel, the brother of Joab, pursued Abner; and as he would not desist in the pursuit, Abner finally wounded Asahel in the groin with a spear; and Asahel died.7 Although the war between the house of Saul and the house of David lasted for a long time, David made more progress and his strength increased; but the house of Saul declined daily. To David were born at Hebron the following sons: The first, Amon (Amnon); the second, Cheliab (Chileab); the third, Absalon (Absalom); the fourth Adonias (Adonijah), and many others by numerous wives.8 But Abner, who ruled the house of Ish-bosheth, was called to account by his lord because he had slept with Saul’s concubine; and thereupon they became enemies.9 And he went to David and promised him that he would bring the entire people of Israel under his rule. He undertook to deal in this way, and returned to Michal,10 David’s wife, to David. Joab, to avenge his brother Asahel, treacherously slew Abner.11 This did not please David, who caused Abner to be buried with his own, and to be mourned and fasted.12
This David was a real miracle in human flesh; for in him were combined qualities never again found present together (in the same individual): Greatness and humility; great fairness and kindness; great solicitude for worldly affairs, and pure and devout regard for things spiritual; the slaughter of many people, and the shedding of many tears; the commission of great sins on one hand, and atonement on the other. Item: To him were born at Jerusalem the following sons: Shammuah (Salma), Shobad (Saba), Nathan, and Solomon (Salomon), out of Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah; also eight others, not counting the sons of his concubines.13 And after he had restored peace to the land, he decided to enumerate the people, contrary to the laws of Moses; and he counted 1,100,000 fighting men; and of the tribe of Judah alone 470,000. But the census displeased God, and he struck Israel with a plague to which 70,000 Israelites succumbed.14
These three (referring to the triple portrait of Gad, Nathan, and Aseph below) prophesied in the time of David; and Nathan was David’s brother’s son, and an adopted son of Jesse.
The Lineage of Christ is here continued from Folio XLII verso, where the line of descent was brought down to include Jesse and all of his children, except David, with whom the present branch of the genealogy therefore begins. And so here the Psalmist makes his debut. Strumming on a harp, he gracefully steps forth upon the root-branches of his genealogical tree. He wears his crown and his regal robes, which the artist has turned aside to expose the king’s shapely leg. He moves forward as though about to dance to his own music. The costume, a tight-fitting outer garment with skirt, sleeves puffed and slashed, and the pointed shoes, are well done according to medieval fashion, but are hardly consistent with the period under consideration.
From the main trunk upon which David stands proceed three branches—one straight downward to King Solomon, his favorite son; another to the left, portraying the children of David born at Hebron; and a third, which proceeds to the opposite folio (XLVII recto), portraying the children born to him at Jerusalem:
The Queen of Sheba is represented opposite Solomon by a small woodcut of exquisite design. Her headdress and flowing veil as well as other raiment are entirely medieval. In her extended hand she offers Solomon a beautiful piece of jewelry, probably a cup or chalice, and no doubt one of the good will offerings of her visit from the land of Arabia.
The Murder of Abner is represented at Folio XLVII recto by a small woodcut approximately 3½" square. Abner has just returned to Hebron. Joab, the commander of David’s forces, has taken him aside in the gate, as if to speak to him quietly; but he "struck him there under the fifth rib, that he died, for the blood of Asahel, his brother." (II Sam. 3:27) The incident is quaintly depicted. The men stand in a doorway, face to face, each with one leg extended forward as though engaged in a dance. But Joab is driving his trusty blade of no mean dimensions into Abner’s back, producing in the latter a vacant far away look.
Gad, Nathan and Aseph are represented at Folio XLVII recto in a triple portrait, above which appears this inscription: "These three prophesied in the time of David; and Nathan was David’s brother’s son, and an adopted son of Jesse."
Solomon went up to Gibeon to offer sacrifice in the high place where the tabernacle and altar of Moses stood. And he offered a thousand hosts (burnt offerings) as one entire sacrifice. And the Lord appeared to him by night in a dream, and asked Solomon to say what he desired the Lord to give him. And he wished for wisdom in ruling over his people. This wish pleased the Lord, and the Lord said, because you have not asked for riches, nor for the death of your enemies, nor long life (for yourself), you have been heard. I have given you a wise heart, so that there was none like you before you.15 The first judgment in which Solomon’s wisdom manifested itself was in the case of the sons of two women (that were prostitutes), one of whom had lain upon her child during the night. And they quarreled as to which of them the surviving child belonged. But when Solomon gave judgment that the living child should be divided into two parts, the true mother asked that the child be given alive and entirely to the other woman. And Solomon judged that she was the rightful mother and he awarded her the child.16
In the fourth year of his reign Solomon began to build to the Lord the most celebrated temple in all the world. This was in the 480th year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, and the birth of Abraham the 984th; and he completed the structure in the eighth year. The temple was built in Jerusalem on Mount Moriah, where Abraham wanted to sacrifice his son, and where Jacob, in his dream, saw the ladder that reached from heaven to the earth. This temple was built entirely of white stone. It was erected with much skill and constructed of polished stones wonderfully joined together. Its length was 60 cubits; and the breadth of it 20 cubits; and the height 120, with such proportions that the height from the pavement at the ground to the first floor was 30 cubits; and from the first floor to the second 30 cubits; and from this to the third, that is to the roof of the temple, is 60 cubits. And so the temple had two floors between the pavement and the roof. And at each floor and at the roof there was a balcony round about; and there, it is said, the Lord Christ was tempted by the devil; and before these balconies were grates, so that persons passing about the same would not fall off. The temple was divided into two parts. One was called the sanctum (‘holy’). It was 40 cubits in length, and at this end was the entrance to the temple from the east. The other was called the sanctum sanctorum (‘holy of holies’), 20 cubits in length. Between the sanctum and the sanctum sanctorum was a wall of cedar boards, overlaid with plates of gold, and 20 cubits in height. Before it there hung a thin, beautifully woven veil, which at the time of Christ’s suffering was rent from top to bottom. In the sanctum sanctorum was placed the ark of the Lord that Moses had made. Within the ark were the tablets of the Ten Commandments. Into this sanctum sanctorum the high priest alone went once in each year, on the day that is called the Day of Atonement with great solemnity and adoration. But into the sanctum the priests often went because of various sacrifices, to light the candles or lamps. And there, to the south was the golden candlestick with the seven lights that Moses had made. To the north was the table of offering. In the middle was the golden altar that Moses had made. But to this Solomon added ten other candlesticks equally beautiful, but larger, five to the right and five to the left; likewise ten larger golden tables. In the middle was the altar of incense.17
5½" x 8⅞"
I Kings 3:16-28"Then came there two women, who were harlots, to their king, and stood before him. And the one woman said, My lord, I and this woman dwell in one house; and I was delivered of a child with her in the house. And it came to pass the third day after that I was delivered, that this woman was delivered also: and we were together; there was no stranger with us in the house, save we two in the house. And this woman’s child died in the night; because she lay upon it. And she arose at midnight and took my son from beside me, while your handmaid slept, and laid it in her bosom, and laid her dead child in my bosom. And when I rose in the morning to give the child suck, behold it was dead: but when I had considered it in the morning, behold, it was not my son, which I did bear. And the other woman said, No; but the living is my son, and the dead is your son. And the other one said, No; but the dead is your son, and the living is my son. Thus they spoke before the king. Then said the king, The one says, This is my son that lives, and your son is the dead one: and the other says, No; but your son is the dead one, and my son is the living one.
"And the king said, Bring me a sword. And they brought a sword before the king. And the king said, Divide the living child in two, and give half to the one, and half to the other. Then spoke the woman whose living child was before the king, for her heart yearned for her son, and she said, My lord, give her the living child, and in no way slay it. But the other said, Let it be neither mine nor yours but divide it. Then the king answered and said, Give her the living child, and in no way slay it: she is the mother of it.
"And all Israel heard of the judgment which the king had judged; and they feared the king: for they saw that the wisdom of God was in him, to do judgment."
Of course, no artist creating pictorial material for a work of this nature would overlook the opportunity of portraying the judgment of Solomon upon the rival claims to motherhood. And so here the artist has wisely chosen, and he has done a good piece of work.
Complacently Solomon sits upon the judgment seat. He wears a crown and a simple but voluminous robe and in the exercise of his authority he holds the scepter to indicate that he is wielding the authority of his office. At this point the hearing is really over. The corpus delicti–a dead child and a live one–are present at the foot of the throne. The rival claimants to the living youngster have made their interesting pleas, as set forth in the biblical narrative quoted above. We are beyond the point of tentative judgment that the living child was to be divided, and the executioner who stands at the right idly holds his sword in his left hand, while with the right he pushes back his cap and scratches his head as though puzzled by the proceedings, or disappointed in the result. The false mother and the true, in their attitude toward the living child, have given the king the true solution.
To the left of the picture kneels the false claimant to whom the judgment has left the dead child. Behind her, silhouetted against a window with diamond-shaped panes, are two venerable men, one with a flowing beard, the other with a braided one, who may be councilors or advisers to the king; certainly they are not acting for either of the claimants, as each woman pleaded her own cause.
To the right of the throne is a space apparently open to the general public—a sort of porch, resembling the old Court of the Arches in London. The place is crowded with people, deeply interested in the proceedings. It is in this direction that the successful mother turns, holding her child by the hand. In parting, she looks back at the king in gratitude and proud satisfaction, and even the child seems to wave the good judge a ‘Thank you!’ And so, there was no work for the Lord High Executioner.
Ahijah (Achias) the Shilomite (Silonites), a prophet, prophesied to Jeroboam (Hieroboam) that he would rule over the ten tribes of Israel in the beginning of the kingdom.
Jeroboam received the ten rents in his mantle at the hands of Ahijah, the prophet, and fled into Egypt. After Solomon’s death he was elected king of the ten tribes. He set up calves of gold at Dan and Naphtali and became an arch idolater. He caused the people of Israel to commit the sin of idolatry, resulting in the dispersion of the entire people of Israel.18
Shemaiah (Semeias) silenced Rehoboam in the war against Jeroboam, and he also wrote a history of Rehoboam’s reign; and he prophesied that Shishak (Sesac) the Egyptian king would do much mischief in the land of Judah, namely in the fifth year of Rehoboam.19
Abdo the prophet, prophesied against the golden calves; and the hand of Jeroboam withered. And as he was returning to Jerusalem he was killed by a lion.20
Nadab, son of King Jeroboam, was the second king of Israel. He began to reign in the second year of Asa (Aza) the king of Judea, and, like his father, he committed much evil. But Baasha (Baasa) slew him and reigned in his stead, according to the prophecy of Ahijah.21
Baasha, of the tribe of Issachar, third king of Israel, also committed evil before the Lord and wandered in all the wicked ways of Jeroboam. He would not listen to Jehu (Hieu), the prophet, who was sent by him, but killed him. However, he himself was killed by Chreone. 22
Hela (Elah) the son of Baasha, was the fourth king of Israel. He and his father’s entire house were slain by his servant Zimri (Zambricum), who "left not one that pisses against a wall." 23
Zadok (Sadoch), a high priest, began to function at the beginning of Solomon’s reign. He was in the line of bishops the eighth.
Achimas (Achimaas), the son of Zadok.
Ahimaaz (Achimas), the ninth high priest of the Hebrews, was renowned and held in the greatest honor by the Jews.
The woodcut of Solomon’s Temple is intended to amplify the text on the verso of the opposite folio. It measures 5-9/16" x 8-3/4". It is a rather inferior piece of work and neither complies with the specifications of that "noble pile" in the Bible, nor is it in accord with the consensus of conjecture as to what the temple really looks like. According to the present artist, it was hexagonal in outline, while the biblical narrative gives it only length and breadth, and a rectangular shape. There is also a lack of balconies and the necessary guardrails. The temple was apparently a three-story structure, but it is not so shown here. The place, to which the temple was after all a mere adjunct, is not in evidence, unless the slender square tower to the left, with the grand staircase, is meant to represent the "great house" of the celebrated king. The minor structures in the foreground to either side of the temple are apparently intended as porches or antechambers to the temple, although they appear in a rather unrelated position.
In the temple court seven persons, probably priests, are promenading about, while an eighth one is upon his knees in front of a flat object that resembles a prayer rug. All is surrounded by a fortified wall with turrets at frequent intervals. All the structures have cupolas, most of which resemble a fair sized and rather ripe squatty tomato. In the distance is a hilly landscape.
The Priestly Lineage is here continued from folio XLI verso, where Eli,Phinehas, Ahitub, Ahimelech and Abiathar were portrayed. The present panel contains but two illustrations, the son and grandson of Ahitub:
Here begins the Lineage of the Israelite Kings, the first four of whom are portrayed in a narrow panel in the usual form. They appear in order of the text: Jeroboam, Nadab, Baasha (Baasa) and Elah (Hela). Neither the Bible nor the Chronicle give these potentates very good characters, and their portraits are about as "tough" as their records. The portrait of Hela is a duplicate of the portrait of Amytitas found in Folio XXV recto.
The three Hebrew prophets, Ahijah (Achias), Shemaiah (Semeias) and Abdo (the mysterious prophet who remains unnamed in the Bible) are portrayed by three small woodcuts scattered through the text.
Perusia (now Perugia) is a very ancient and noble city of Etruria; and although formerly the first, it is now the third of all the Etrurian cities. According to Justin24 it was built by the Achaeans. It had its beginning at the time the city of Rome was built, although some say that Perusius, the Trojan prince, was its builder, and that it was named Perusium, or Perusiam, after him. More than any other city in Italy, Perugia enjoyed the blessings of good fortune, and that to an incredible degree. This position it maintained, together with the same manners, customs and commercial dealings which it enjoyed before the building of Rome; and these it continued to enjoy when Rome was ruled by kings, consuls, emperors, and tyrants. Yet Perugia suffered from various attacks. After the death of Alexander the Great, it was forced to submit to the Romans, under the power and compulsion of L. Posthumus, the consul.25 Livy relates that Fabius, the Roman, during the period of unrest and wars in Etruria, slew 4500 Perugians. Later, under the rule of the Roman triumvirate, the city was very unfortunate. The emperor Octavian besieged L. Antonius, the brother of M. Antonius (Mark Anthony), in the city of Perugia, and during that time the forces of Anthony and the Perugians suffered famine to an unheard-of degree. The city was captured and destroyed. When Octavian became sole ruler, he soon rebuilt the city, securing it with forts and turrets, which are still to be seen there. He called the city Augusta (Augusta Perusia), after himself; and to this cubit-high inscriptions on the fortifications testify to this day. The city is so situated, surrounded by sharp peaks and mountains, that it requires no other form of defense. Although there has been much dissension among the people of the city, and they were at times oppressed by tyrants, Perugia is now free and has within it good and highly educated men and laws. Here are to be found mighty churches, and beautifully adorned cloisters for the spiritual, tall palaces for the laity, large hospitals for the poor, a very renowned school, a large market, a beautiful fountain and a park well improved with buildings. Its fields produce oil, wine, saffron and all manner of sweet fruits. Here flourished Baldus26, who was held in high esteem; and he, together with Bartolus Sassoferrato27, were supreme in knowledge of the civil and canon law. Similarly, Angelus and Petrus, brothers.28 And Cinus before them was a very skillful lawyer of Perusia. During our time Matheolus, the celebrated physician, was born here, and with his learning and teaching he flourished in the University of Padua.29
The old Etrurian city of Perusia (now Perugia) is here represented by the same woodcut that at folio XXIII verso is used to represent the city of Damascus.
The writings of the religious teachers treating of these times give no consideration to the history of the pagans, perhaps because they are of no service in an understanding of the Holy Scriptures. Some make no mention of intermediate kings up to the time of Sardanapalus, the last Assyrian ruler.
Rehoboam (Roboam), son of Solomon, and third Hebrew king, did not follow the wisdom of his father; he scorned the advice of his elders, and followed the willful inclinations of younger men; and in consequence he depressed the people and retained but two of the tribes. This was called the kingdom of Judah. Because of his sinful conduct he was obliged to endure the violence and persecutions of the Egyptian king. Rehoboam had eighteen wives and thirty concubines, twenty-eight sons, and forty daughters. The kingdom of David was divided in the first year of his reign, and was never reunited.
Jehu (Hyeu), son of Hanani (Anani) the prophet, was sent to Baasha; and he firmly suffered martyrdom unto his death.
Jehu, Eleazar (Eliezer) and Uzziel (Oziel), together with Azariah (Azaria), prophesied for Asa (Aza), Jehoshaphat (Josaphat), and Joram, the kings of Judea.
After Silvius, the son of Aeneas from Lavinia, and third king of the Latins, the succeeding kings were called Silvius. He was called Silvius because he was raised in the woods and was a hunter. He was born after the death of his father. And he is called Postumus because he was born after the burial of his father Aeneas, according to that account of Virgil. By the common people he was called Postumus, and he reigned 29 years.31
Abijah, son of Rehoboam, and fourth king of the Jews, reigned three years. He was wicked before the Lord and followed in the evil ways of his father, and therefore reigned but a few years. Jeroboam, the king of Israel, made war against him, and in that war Jeroboam employed 80,000 fighting men and Abijah 40,000. And although Abijah saw such a great force coming against him, he trusted in God and he easily silenced and overcame it, and he slew 5,000 men in a single battle.32
Hanani, the prophet, reproved Asa, and was therefore imprisoned.33
Latinus reigned 50 years in the time of David.
Alba Silvius was the son of Aeneas Silvius. He built the city of Alba, after which the kings of the Albans were named.
Atys (Achis) reigned for 24 years in the time of Rehoboam. His son Capys survived him.
Asa, in the beginning of his reign and up to the thirty-sixth year, did what was good before the Lord, and followed in the way of David, his father. He abolished idolatry and defeated the Ethiopians who came against him.34 Finally, he made a league with Benhadad (Benedab), king of Syria. This was a mistake, and the Lord sent the prophet Hanani to him; but Asa imprisoned him.35 For this reason he was diseased in the feet; and from that he died.36 While Asa ruled and all was well with the kingdom and according to the law of God, Zerah (Zara), king of the Ethiopians, attacked him with a vast army. Asa and his forces went forth to meet them. And he called upon the Lord, and the Ethiopians were frightened off, and turned in flight.37 Thereupon Azariah the prophet ran to meet Asa, and he comforted him with the prophecy that Jerusalem would be taken by the Chaldeans.38
The Lineage of Christ is here continued from Folio XLVI verso, which there ended with Solomon. We here resume, and add:
And so we have just another line of kings, with crown, orb and scepter; the portrait of Rehoboam being a repetition of the woodcut called Belus, first king of Assyria at Folio XVII verso; while that of Asa stood for Ninus of the same line at the same place. The portrait of Abijah is new, but there is nothing unusual about it.
Jehu, Eleazer and Oziel (Uzziel) are shown in a small triple portrait of no particular interest; while Hanani is found further down the page surrounded by the black letter text. His portrait did service for Rechab at Folio XXXIV verso.
The Lineage of the Italian Kings is continued from Folio XLIII recto, and the following are here added:
The Lineage of Italian Kings began at Folio XXXV recto.
Azariah, son of Obed, was a prophet and flourished at this time. He prophesied from prison. He went forth to meet Asa, the king. The king was encouraged by his words; and he was warned to abolish idolatry from the land of Judah and Benjamin.39
Zimri (Zamri), a king of Israel, annihilated the house of Baasha; but Zimri was before long himself defeated by Omri (Amri), who afterwards ruled in his place.40
Elijah (Helia) the prophet, though prayers brought about a drought of three years upon the land; and he was fed by a raven at the brook Cherith (Carith). The raven brought him meat and bread early and late. He was also fed at Zarephath (Sareptana) by a widow who still had a small quantity of flour, which never grew less. And he raised her son from the dead.41 On Mount Carmel, before the assembled people, he caused the fire of heaven to come down upon the sacrifice, something which the 400 priests of the idolaters could not accomplish; and he slew them.42 Therefore Jezebel pursued him, and Elijah fled into the wilderness. An angel appeared to him as he slept under a juniper tree. And the angel awakened him, and urged him to eat the bread which he had brought him; by the strength of which Elijah journeyed 40 days unto Mount Horeb.43 And from there he went to Damascus. Thereafter the Lord drew him up into heaven by means of a whirlwind.44
Obadiah (Abdyas), one of the twelve prophets, was a steward of the house of Ahab (Achab), king of Israel. Now when the queen, Jezebel (Jezabel)45, Ahab’s wife, slew the prophets of the Lord, Obadiah hid fifty from among them in one cave, and fifty in another; and for this he earned the spirit of prophecy.46
Ahab, the sixth king of Israel, chiefly because of the influence of his wife, Jezebel, exceeded all his predecessors in wickedness. Finally he was wounded in battle, and died. Jezebel was the daughter of the king of Sidon, and a symbol of wrath. She killed Naboth and the prophets of the Lord, but was herself slain by Jehu and eaten by dogs.47
Micaiah or Micah (Micheas), a prophet out of the tribe of Ephraim (Ephrem), often reproved Ahab for his sins, and prophesied to him that he would die; and so in a war against Syria, he was shot to death while alone on a chariot.48
Ahaziah (Ochosias), the seventh king of Israel, sent (messengers) to Beelzebub, the local deity of Ekron (Accaron)49, to learn whether he would get well again. But he died as Elijah had prophesied. He began to reign in the seventeenth year of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, and he left no son. Joram, his brother, succeeded him in the kingdom.50
Jonah (Jonas), the son of Amittai (Amathi), was a brilliant prophet, and prophesied many things that are not here related. He was thereafter sent to Nineveh, as is related in his book. While still a child he is said to have been awakened from the dead by Elijah. He was swallowed by a whale. By his dangerous sea voyage he presaged the sufferings of Christ.51
Jehoram (Joram) was besieged in Samaria by Benhadad; but he was relieved by the efforts of Elisha. He began to reign in the eighteenth year of Jehoshaphat the king, in the place of his brother Ahaziah. But thereafter he followed in the wicked ways of Jeroboam, and was slain, together with all his father’s house, by Jehu; although for many years he had observed the laws of God and ruled his subjects justly, and had held Elisha the prophet in honor and respect. The Moabite king made war upon his kingdom and overthrew and plundered it.52
To the left of this page we see a vertical array of the five Hebrew prophets, all of whom are briefly mentioned in the accompanying text:
The Lineage of Israelite Kings is here continued from Folio XLVIII recto (Jeroboam I, Nadab, Baash and Elah), and the following are added:
As noted, the only new woodcut is the dual portrait of Ahab, and his queen Jezebel, both of whom appear with sword in hand, as though ready for any bloody work that might present itself.
Jericho, at one time a royal residence and celebrated city, has now become a little village. It lies in a very beautiful region in the valley of the Jordan. It has about eight houses. All evidence of its holy character has entirely disappeared. The Holy Scriptures state that the Lord did much in Jericho. He miraculously broke down its walls, and caused Joshua to pronounce a curse against anyone who should rebuild them.53 Rahab the prostitute was of this city.54 And there Christ was given lodging in the house of Zacchaeus.55 There also bears tore asunder those who mocked Elisha the prophet. In this city the Lord made the blind to see.56 Near it was a garden of balsams, of whose delights something has been written. This valley with its adjacent mountains which enclose it like a wall, covers an area of 200,000 jugera.57 Therein is a grove widely renowned for its fruitfulness and its delights. The balsam trees resemble pines, but are lower in stature.58 They are grown like the vineyards. Although the sun is hottest in this region, the atmosphere is moderated by the shade of these trees.59
As Elijah wandered about with his disciple Elisha, they came to the river Jordan. And as Elijah struck the waters with his mantle, a path was formed, and they went through the middle. Thereupon Elijah asked Elisha to express a wish before he (Elijah) was taken away from him. And he prayed Elijah to give him a double portion of his spirit, that is, to do miracles, and to prophesy. And Elijah said, if you see me when I am taken from you, you shall receive it. And while they thus talked to one another, a fiery chariot appeared, with fiery horses. And Elijah stepped in the chariot, and was taken up into heaven, that is, into the earthly paradise. There he will stay, alive, with Enoch, up to the time of Antichrist. Then he will depart from there to preach. And Elisha cried, my father, my father, the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen thereof, etc. And he took hold of the mantle that had fallen from Elijah, and returned to the Jordan. And he struck it with the mantle a second time; and the waters parted. And he went to Jericho to live there. At the request of the inhabitants he cured the evil waters of the region with a new jar containing salt, which he let down into the waters, making them fresh and good. And he went up from there to Bethel, and the children laughed at him, and said, go up, you bald head. And he cursed them, and two bears came and tore 42 of the children.60 Elijah, the greatest prophet of his time, was, during this period, thus taken away from the people. Nobody saw the end. During his lifetime he worked many miracles; and he was like a burning fire, and his words like a flaming torch. Finally, in the presence of Elisha, he was carried to heaven in a whirlwind, and he left Elisha behind in his stead.
Jericho is represented by a woodcut 5"x 8-⅞". The place has the appearance of desolation. Before us are the city walls and gate. In the distance are the ruins of what was probably a castle or fort. Except for a few trees and shrubs, the landscape is barren, the city deserted. The woodcut is here used for the first time.
(B) The Ascension of Elijah is represented by a woodcut approximately 5-1/4" square. The prophet is leaving the earth in a fiery four-wheeled box-shaped wagon, resembling those used by children at play. The vehicle is rather diminutive in comparison with its load. The horses disappear in a cloud of fire. Elijah looks back at Elisha who has seized the mantle of his master.
Ben-hadad (Benedab), a son of Tab-rimmon (Tabremmon), a son of Hezion (Ozyon), king of Syria, entered into a league with Baasha, the king of Israel. After breaking this alliance, he entered into a league with Asa the king of Judah; since which time the kings of Syria afflicted the kingdom of Israel, etc.61 Ben-hadad, the king of Syria, assembled his forces; and he had thirty-two kings to aid him. He joined in battle with Ahab, the king of Israel. The Lord, through a prophet, prophesied a victory (for Israel) and the defeat of the enemy. And so it happened, for the enemy fled. But the king of Syria at the return of the year strengthened himself with a new army, and he came on to give battle to Israel in the plains, saying that the gods of the hills were the gods of Israel; for which reason they (the Syrians) were formerly defeated. But the Syrian army was again routed, and of their number 100,000 were slain and over 47,000 fled to the city, where they were crushed by the falling of the wall. But Ben-hadad the king of Syria concealed himself; and he sent messengers to Ahab in hairy raiment, and with ashes upon their heads, to plead for mercy. And this Ahab granted, and left him free. For this a prophet, clad in disguise, called him to account by means of the parable of the man who was asked to keep another man prisoner, on pain of losing his own life if he escaped. And as Ahab had released Ben-hadad, who was deserving of death, therefore he prophesied that Ahab would lose his own life for Ben-hadad’s and his people theirs in lieu of the lives of Ben-hadad’s people.62
Hazael (Asael), king of Syria, was, according to prophecy and by the secret judgment of God, made a king of Syria, to punish the children of Israel. Over him Elisha wept, prophesying that he was a future king of Syria, and would do great evil in Israel. And as a punishment for their sins, the Lord sent him into all the lands of Gilead, Ruben, and Manassa;63 and he was a blight all the days of Jehoahaz (Joathas).64 But by the grace of the Lord God, Joash (Joas), his son, took the cities from the hands of Ben-hadad, the son of Hazael, after Hazael’s death.
Ben-hadad was the son of Hazael. Joash, the son of Jehoahaz (Joachas) and the king of Israel, took from the hands of Ben-hadad the cities that his (Ben-hadad’s) father Hazael had won by war from Jehoahaz. For Joash defeated him three times.65
Jehoiada (Joiada) was a distinguished man. He prevented Athaliah from ruling over Judah, and placed Joash, the son of Jehoram, in her stead. As one reads, he lived, according to Moses, 130 years. Pursuant to divine will he arranged matters so that Athaliah was slain in the house of the king.66
Rezin (Raasim), the king of Syria, devastated Judah in the time of Ahaz (Achas). For this reason Tiglath-pileser (Teglatphalazar) besieged him at Damascus. He captured the city, and slew Rezin.67
Zechariah (Zacharias) the son of Jehoiada, was stoned between the altar and the temple at the command of the king because he upbraided the king for leaving the way of the Lord.68
Azariah (Azarias), relying on the laws of God, resisted Uzziah (Ozie), the king of Judah, who was about to sacrifice there, etc.69
Naboth, an Israelite, had a vineyard by the house of King Ahab. Ahab attempted to purchase the vineyard, in order to make a garden of it. To this Naboth was opposed. And as Jezebel, the king’s wife, saw that Ahab was saddened by this, she comforted him, and so arranged matters that Naboth was accused of blasphemy by false witnesses. Although innocent, he was stoned. When Ahab came to take possession of the vineyard, the Lord sent Elijah, the prophet, to him, to prophesy his extermination and that of his house, because of this sin.70
The Priestly Lineage is here continued from Folio XLVIII recto (where Zadok and his son Ahimaaz were shown); and now are added the following:
The Lineage of the Syrian Kings has its inception here with the following:
NOTE: There were two Syrian kings named Ben-hadad (I and II), father and son. The first was hired by Asa, king of Judah, to make war on Baasha, king of Israel (I Kings 15:18-22). The second, his son, made war on Ahab, king of Israel (I Kings 20; II Kings 6:27; 7:6; 8:7-15). There was also a Ben-hadad III, son of Hazael, and who was thrice defeated by Joash and lost all his father had gained (II Kings 13).
Zechariah (Zacharias) son of the high priest Jehoiada, branches out from his father into the midst of the text. It was he who was stoned for rebuking Joash for his idolatry (II Chron. 24:21). It is the same woodcut that served for Yepte at Folio XLI recto.
Naboth, owner of the vineyard coveted by Ahab and his Jezebel, is represented by a portrait in the lower right side of the page. It is the same woodcut that served for Abymelech at Folio XXXVII verso and Achias at XLVIII recto.
Aquileia (Aquileia), a city of Italy, and located beyond Padua, while once the first and mightiest (city), and also the most beautiful, and situated a short distance from the sea, is in our time almost entirely abandoned. It was named after the Trojan, Aquilus, who, with others was driven out of Troy. Then the building of the city began, and from him it has its name. And although a few priests and canons in a small way provide holy services in a decorated and beautiful little church, and a few herdsmen and fishermen reside there, yet a people do not live there now; so that this once magnificent city can hardly be called a citadel now. At present there is the church, just mentioned, and the patriarchal court, the walls about the city, and a convent, and evidences of the work of Peponis, the patriarch. The city began to flourish when the Romans began to raise their hands against the barbarian people living on the Danube. And although the Emperor Augustus Octavianus conducted the war largely though emissaries, yet to be nearer to them he marched (as Suetonius writes) from Rome to Ravenna, Milan and Aquileia. Julia traveled with him, and she was delivered of a child.71 The Aquileians sided with the Romans against the Maximinians, and were so faithful and ingenious that when there was a scarcity of sinews for bow-strings, they used the locks of their wives and made bow-strings from that.72 Industry and trade in oriental and occidental wares which were brought together there made this city wonderfully and superabundantly rich; for while this city flourished there was no other place on the Adriatic Sea where the people of the Orient and the Occident could get together for the purchase and sale of their merchandise. And after this city had flourished for a long time, it was finally completely destroyed by Attila. The inhabitants fled to Venice and they augmented the city wonderfully. When the holy evangelist St. Mark was sent to Alexandria by St. Peter, and the ships were being prepared at Aquileia, he converted the Aquileians to the Christian faith. And the gospel, which he wrote with his own hand, is held in great esteem at Venice. The pious Hermagoras (Hermacoras)73, who was also converted by the preaching of St. Mark, and in Aquileia by St. Peter, and who was appointed the highest councilor over all Venetia, won over this whole region for our Lord by his conversion to the Christian faith. He and St. Fortunatus were slain with an axe by the Emperor Nero. Chromatius74 of whom the glorified Jerome has written much, was also of Aquileia; also Rufinus (Ruffinus), the priest, so learned in the Latin and the Greek75 that we in no small measures esteem his books and interpretations among all the works of the teachers of the church.76
Is here represented by the same woodcut that was used for Mainz at Folio XXXIX verso.
Treviso (Taruisium), a city lying in the March of Treviso, was at this period (as Sicardus the bishop of Cremona states) founded by some Trojans. The city is divided by the river Sile that flows out of the mountains nearby, and by this and other rivers, having their sources there; it is watered and rendered productive. Treviso is said to have originated in the time of the Ostrogoths, and was then as it appears today; for the father of Totila, the king, made it his royal seat. Totila was the fifth king of the Ostrogoths, and a very distinguished man. He was born and brought up a Treviso. But thereafter, in the beginning of the Lombard kingdom, Alboin, the king of the same, went into Italy, and Aquileia and other cities surrendered to him. Treviso, however, was slow in doing so, and he decided to plunder and destroy it. Felix, the bishop of the city (as Gregory writes), a wise and fearless man and native of Ravenna, was not to be intimidated by the king’s grimness. This city was also graced with another distinguished bishop, named Hermalao, who (as becomes a bishop) was more interested in being useful to his people than in merely lording over them. And while the whole March of Treviso was named after this city, yet I believe this was merely due to awkwardness in the use of the name; for in this region are other large cities like Verona and Padua, which excelled Treviso in reputation, power, and wealth. The Lombards possessed a large share of the lands of Italy and among them were four duchies; but in these their sons and grandsons had no lawful rights of inheritance. These were the Beneventian, Spoletanian, Taurinian and Floriaulian regions; also two others, namely the Anconitanian and Trevisian regions, of equal rank with the aforesaid in size and wealth, and held upon condition that whosoever should attain to the kingship with the consent of the king, or through a general assembly of the Lombard people, should have the right and power to pass the lordship on to his sons or other male issue by inheritance. This city, like Padua, did not escape the ravages of Celim and his brother Alberti of Rumano, at whose hands it suffered innumerable troublesome attacks, worries, and sorrows.77
The ancient city of Travisium (now Treviso) is represented by a woodcut that was used to represent Paris at Folio XXXIX recto.
Jehoshaphat (Josaphat) did good in the sight of the Lord, and one reads of him nothing more deserving of punishment than that he gave assistance to an unworthy king of Israel. He extinguished all men of feminine inclinations from the soil of Judah, destroyed idolatry, observed the laws of the fathers; and by such virtues he overcame all the princes in the vicinity. The Palestinians began to pay him tribute. He lived sixty years, and his body was buried at Jerusalem with great pomp.78
Capys (Capis) Silvius built Capua in Campania, and he reigned 28 years and left the kingdom to his son Capetus (Carpentus).
Jehoram (Ioram), the ill-tempered, murdered his brother, and walked in the ways of the kings of Israel. Therefore he was unlucky in all his undertakings and died miserably. Although born of a spiritual father, he was inclined to infidelity and led the sons of Judah to unchaste practices. He followed the unchaste Ahab, whose daughter named Athaliah was his wife, and through her influence he daily committed acts of madness.79
Capetus (Carpentus)80 reigned 30 years after his father, in the time of Jehoshaphat.
Ahaziah (Ochosias), son of Jehoram, and eighth king of Judah, was, like his father, wicked in the sight of the Lord. And soon he was slain by Jehu. Matthew, the evangelist, left this king and the two succeeding ones, namely Joash and Amasias by the wayside. For he wished to mention but three foreigners; or (as Jerome and Augustine state) since Jehoram took to wife the daughter of the most evil Jezebel, therefore his sons to the fourth generation were rejected by the Lord. For Ahaziah walked in the way of Ahab, his maternal ancestor. This Ahaziah, Jehu, the prince of the house of Jehoram, the king of Samaria, exterminated with the entire house of Ahab. His corpse was taken from the city of Megiddo and buried in Jerusalem.81
Tiberius (Tiberius) Silvis reigned nine years, and after he was drowned in the Tiber, formerly called the Albula, the river was named after him.82 And so Romulus83 made Tiberius a god, for he believed him to be the ruler of the river Tiber, whose use was very necessary to Rome.
Athaliah, a very vain and proud woman, after the death of her son Ahaziah, brazenly assumed sovereignty over the kingdom; and she slew all the royal seed except Joash (Joas) whom the wife of Jehoiada the bishop, and daughter of Jehoram, nourished in concealment for seven years. After she had reigned seven years Jehoiada cruelly murdered her.84
Agrippa Silvius, king of the Albans, or Italians, reigned for 40 years after his father, the aforesaid Tiberinus.85
Jonadab, son of Rechab, was a highly renowned man, in whom the very pious line of the Rechabites originated. When Jehu determined to slay the priests of Baal, Jonadab prophesied to him; for he and his sons were zealous lovers of divine honor, great moderation, and piousness.86 And mark that the sons of Rechab, by command of their father, lived in the tabernacle as pilgrims and guests upon the earth, isolated from all mankind. They built no house, sowed no seed, and drank no wine.
During the time of Jehoram (Joram), king of Judah, the roof of the temple and its furniture, which had become old and neglected during the reign of Athaliah, were repaired with funds which were collected at the command of the king; for up to this time the priests had neglected to repair such things, although they had received the full measure of necessary funds from the people.
The Lineage of Christ is here continued from Folio XLIX recto, which there ended with the portrait of Asa. To this we now add:
Athaliah (Athalia), infamous daughter of Ahab and Jezebel. This woodcut is used here for the first time. The subject appears crowned, scepter in her right hand, sword in her left.
Jehonadab (Jonadab), was a son or descendant of Rechab. He was a chief among the descendants of Rechab, but not a king, and therefore he appears without royal accessories.
The Lineage of Italian Kings is here continued from Folio XLIX recto, where the Mythological kings of Alba (with the cognomen of Silvius) began. We now add the following, all of the same surname:
Lycurgus, according to Eusebius, was a distinguished and highly renowned man. He made the laws for the Lacedaemonians. Although a pagan, he made very just laws, equally applicable to natural and divine rights. He ordained nothing for which he himself had not furnished a precedent. He refused to tolerate the use of gold and silver, or any other material that might become an instrument of wantonness. He divided the land equally among all the people, so that the inheritance of one person would not be larger than that of another. In order that riches might not be secreted, he ordained that all transactions should be public. To each youth he permitted but one outfit of dress per year. No one was to go about more elegantly dressed than another, nor to dine more sumptuously. He also made certain regulations, not for the sake of money, but to facilitate exchange. He decreed that children of sufficient age should not be placed in trade, but upon the farms, to spend their early years in work and labor, and not in wantonness and luxury; nor were they to employ any bedding on which to sleep. They were to live on vegetables alone, and were not to frequent the cities until they had become grown-up men. He also decreed that maidens were to be married without a dowry, so that wives would not be chosen for money alone, and so that the men would take their courtship more seriously and without money as the incentive. The greatest honors were accorded to the aged, and not to the rich and mighty. But as these and other laws, contrary to the loose customs of the people and difficult of observance, met with opposition, Lycurgus assured the people that he had secured them from the Delphian Apollo, a pagan god. To give these laws permanence, Lycurgus obligated the people by an oath to observe them, and not to make any changes in these divine commandments until he returned home; in the meantime he would pay another visit to Apollo to inquire what could be done about these laws. But instead, he went to the island of Crete, to which he voluntarily exiled himself for the remainder of his life. He made provision that in the event of his death his remains be placed in a lead casket and thrown into the sea; for should his body be brought home, the Lacedaemonians might interpret his return as releasing them of their obligation.87
Jehu (Hieu), son of Jehosaphat, king of Judah, and the tenth king of Israel, anointed by Elisha, slew Jehoram with the entire house of Ahab, and destroyed the house of Baal, putting all its prophets to death. But he did not leave the calves of gold at Bethel and Dan; for which reason Azahel, the king of Syria, as a visitation from the Lord, slew many in Israel. And he himself died there in the 28th year of his reign.88
Isaiah (Ysayas), a noble prophet, is said by the blessed Jerome to be more evangelist than prophet. Alone during the reign of four kings in those times was he considered famous on account of the clarity of his prophecy.89
Jehoahaz (Joachas) was, together with all his people, almost entirely dispersed by Hazael (Azahel), king of Syria; and so he called on the Lord, and was somewhat comforted.90
Hosea (Osee) the prophet, first of the twelve sent against the ten tribes, was a son of Beeri, although we find no prophecy by Beeri. Hosea prophesied in the time of Jeroboam, king of Israel, the son of Joash, and the same, who with Uzziah (Osia) the king of Judah, reigned for fourteen years. In Judah were four kings – Uzziah (Osia), Jotham (Joathas), Ahaz (Achaz) and Hezekiah (Ezechias); and under these Hosea prophesied.91
Joash (Joas) defeated the Syrians three times, according to the prophecy of Elisha (Helizei), and he took the cities from the power of Ben-hadad, son of Hazael (Azahel), and brought them back into his own kingdom. He also punished Amaziah, and not willfully but involuntarily, humbled him. He began to reign in the 37th year of Joash, king of Judah.92
Joel (Johel), the second of the twelve prophets of Judah, prophesied his own future tribulation.93
Jeroboam was a very warlike and successful man. He drove off the king of Syria, and restored the kingdom of Israel to its former status; and he also took Damascus.94 Mark how unsteady is the status and rule of kingdoms. Israel was dispersed and humbled in the end; and the Syrians were elevated; but now they in turn were miraculously oppressed by misfortune. He who was on top is now underneath. Then again he who was at the bottom rises up, only to fall again thereafter. This is the revolving wheel of time. Therefore it is not to be wondered that but few of the world are taken up by the Lord, and that the understanding and considerate men of the human race flee with all their might from participation in such uncertainties. Compare what Augustine says in many places in his City of God: If good men rule many men they do good, and the opposite if evil men etc.95
Lycurgus, the great lawgiver of Sparta, is represented by a woodcut which represented Franco at Folio XXXVIII recto and Naashon (Naason) at Folio XXX recto.
Isaiah, who is not mentioned in the text; Hosea, first minor prophet of Israel; Joel (Johel), second minor prophet of Israel. Note the early pair of eyeglasses held by Joel (scholars believe that the first pair of eyeglasses were invented in Italy sometime between 1285-1289).
The Lineage of the Israelite Kings is here continued from Folio XLIX verso, which there ended with Jehoram (Joram) and is now resumed as follows:
Jonas (in the Year of the World 4306)96, when seven years of age, was set up as a king of Jehoiada, the bishop; and he did good in all the days of Jehoiada. After the latter’s death, however, Joash was softened by the flattery of the mighty, and his heart became evil; and so it remained to the end. He caused Zecharias (Zacharias), son of Jehoiada, the highest bishop, to be stoned between the temple and the altar in next to the last year of his reign.97
Aremulus (Romulus Silvius) reigned nineteen years in the time of Joash, king of Judah, and he laid the foundation of Alba between the hills were Rome is now located. His sons, Julius and Aventinus, survived him.98
Amaziah (Amasias) (in the Year of the World 4346)99 made a bad end of a good beginning; which has been lamentably and commonly true of the mighty up to our own time. He also crushed many worthy officials, of which there are many examples today.100 He also worshipped the gods of Seir (Seyr).101
Aventinus Silvius reigned 37 years; and for him the Aventine Hill at Rome was named after he was buried there.102
Procas (Prochas), son of Aventinus, ruled 33 years, and whose praises eulogized Vergil extols in this verse: Next is Procas, the glory of the Trojan nation.103 Two sons survived him, Amulius and Numitor, father of Rhea, the mother of Romulus and Remus (Rhemus).104
For 13 years after the death of Amaziah, Judah was without a king. This one must infer by adding together the years of the kings of Israel and Judah; for Amaziah began to reign in the second year of Joash, king of Israel, and Uzziah (Ozias), the son of Amaziah in the 27th year of Jeroboam, king of Israel. This time covers a period of 41 years, and if the years of Amaziah are deducted from that, 13 years remain, during which Uzziah was small and incompetent to rule. However, the Seventy Interpreters and many historians do not have this; they compute it otherwise. In such a manner the matter must be made clear or you will be confused in reckoning the years.
Naaman, a general of the court of Syria, was a leper. To be cured he traveled with letters of recommendation to the king of Israel. When he came to the house of Elisha the prophet, Elisha told him that if he bathed seven times in the river Jordan, he would be cured. And although at first he did not want to do so, yet on advice of his retinue he went there and he bathed, and was cleansed of the leprosy. Then he returned to Elisha, and begged him to accept a present; but Elisha would have nothing. After Naaman had departed, Gehazi (Giezi), Elisha’s disciple, came after him and asked a present on Elisha’s account. And this he brought back to his house. Elisha discovered his disciple’s sinful conduct, and therefore Gehazi was smitten with leprosy.105
Amulius deposed his brother Numitor from the kingdom, and killed his son Lausus. In order to destroy all hope of inheritable issue, he gave his daughter Rhea to the goddess Vesta as a perpetual virgin, on the pretense of thus conferring an honor upon her. But after he had reigned seven years Rhea begot twins, Remus and Romulus. After they grew up they slew Amulius, and Numitor was restored to the kingship; for he was their ancestor.106
This (referring to the woodcut opposite) is Elisha (Heliseus) the prophet, who divided the Jordan with the mantle of Elijah; who with salt made the waters sweet; who cursed 42 children who mocked him and were torn by bears; who supplied the hosts of three kings with sufficient water; multiplied the widow’s oil, awakened the son of the Shunamite (from the dead); improved the bitter (soup of) colocynth (colloquintidas);107 multiplied the loaves of barley for the multitude; cleansed Naaman; made Gehazi (Giezi) and his descendants leprous; blinded the hosts of Syria; prophesied the relief of Samaria from siege and starvation; placed Hazael on the throne of Syria and Jehu on the throne of Israel; prophesied that king Joash would three times defeat the Syrians; awakened the dead, etc.108
Numitor was restored to the kingship, and soon thereafter was slain by Romulus.
The Lineage of Christ is here continued from Folio LII recto, which there ended with Ahaziah (Ochozia). We now add:
The Lineage of the Italian Kings is continued from Folio LII recto, which there ended with Agrippa Silvius. We now continue with:
Elisha and Naaman. By a woodcut 3½" x 3-3/8" the first meeting of Naaman with Elisha is depicted. The prophet stands before the door of his house. Naaman, mounted on a horse and clad in pilgrim’s raiment, has just arrived. In his left hand he holds the idle reins of his frisky steed. In his right he holds up an object which may be a leper’s rattle, or clapper, and which lepers carried to mark their coming and to warn the healthy from their path. A like object appears in the hands of Rembrandt’s "Leper". In some cases the afflicted used a horn or bell. Lepers also work masks to hide their deformities, and it will be noted that the lower part of Naaman’s face is covered, probably for the same reason. Leprosy as a public menace did not die out in Europe until the end of the sixteenth century, almost one hundred years after the Chronicle was first published.
In the distance appears the river Jordan, and in it a person holding his hands in an attitude of prayer is seen immersed to the waist. Above him is the inscription "Sirus," probably meaning Syria, or Syrian. This may be one of those unusually sophisticated pictures in which two actions by the same person are depicted. This may represent Naaman after he has finally agreed to try the prophet’s remedy.
Here the kingdom of Israel was without a king for 33 years, as is discovered by adding together the kings of Judah.
Amos was the third among the twelve prophets, and he prophesied against many peoples, particularly the ten tribes.109
Obadiah (Abdias) was the fourth of the twelve prophets. He prophesied against Edom. He was quite old when he died, and was buried in the grave of Elisha.110
During this time the Spartans or Lacedaemonians roved about in wars for a hundred years, and they wrote their wives to take other husbands so that the race would not die out.
Jonah (Jonas), one of the twelve prophets, was sent to the people of Nineveh, who heard him.111
Micah (Micheas) was the sixth of the twelve prophets.112
Nahum (Naum) was the seventh of the twelve prophets.113
Here the entire imaginary history of Tobias is given.
Tobit (Tobias) died at the age of 102 years. He was a holy man, of good works, and illustrious in the spirit of prophecy; for before the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, he prophesied that future event with a certainty as though it had presently happened. Soon after his death his wife died also. And after the young Tobit (Tobias) with his children left Nineveh, it was destroyed.114
Zechariah (Zacharias), the king of Israel, began to reign in the 38th year of Uzziah (Ozia), king of Judah. He did evil, as his forefathers had done. He was the fourth (king) after Jehu.115 He was slain by Shallum (Sellum), who then ruled in his stead.116 The latter was soon thereafter slain by Menahem (Manahem), who deprived him of the kingship and of his life.
Menahem began to reign in the 39th year of Uzziah (Ozia) king of Judah. He did evil before the Lord; wherefore God gave him up to the king of Assyria, who required of him a tribute of a thousand talents of silver.117
Pekahiah (Phaceya) was slain by Pekah (Phacee), who then reigned in his stead.118
Pekah (Phacee) was slain by Hoshea (Ozee), who then reigned in his stead. He (Pekah) formed an alliance with Rezin (Raasin) the king of Syria, and ravaged Judah; wherefore Tiglath-pileser (Theglatphalazar), the king of the Assyrians, crushed him and carried three of the tribes into Assyria.119
Hoshea (Ozee) was the last king of Israel. He was made prisoner by Shalmaneser (Salmanazar), king of the Assyrians, who carried the Israelites into captivity in Assyria.120
Israel is taken over by the Assyrians.
In the eleventh year of Hoshea, which was the 3,151st year of the world, and of the Fourth Age of the World the 261st, the kingdom of Macedonia began. There Cararius, or Carnaus, first reigned, and for a period of 28 years. This kingdom endured until the time of Alexander the Great, through 24 kings. Carnaus began to rule in the 3530th year of the world, and he reigned 12 years and 6 months. After his death the kingdom was largely taken over by the Babylonia.121
The Priestly Lineage is here continued from Folio L verso, which there ended with Azariah (Azarias), as follows:
NOTE: The author of the Chronicle has avoided considerable responsibility and confusion by total silence as to this portion of the priestly lineage. It is difficult to follow these names through the Bible. They may refer to the same person or to many persons.
The Twelve Minor Prophets of Israel began at Folio LII verso with Hosea and Joel. We now add Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah and Nahum, respectively the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh minor prophets:
Tobias or Tobit (Thobias), the apocryphal prophet, is represented by the same woodcut which has already been used for Jair (Yair) at Folio XXXVII verso.
The Lineage of the Kings of Israel is here concluded with the following:
Arbaces, by birth a Mede, and formerly a vicar or satrap under Sardanapalus, founded the Median Empire in the sixth year of Hoshea. Sardanapalus was the last king of the Assyrians, and of him Diodorus Siculus has written much in his Greek histories. Justinus has also mentioned him. He was more depraved and lewd than any woman. When Arbaces, his vicar, found him in the company of villainous women, spinning costly silk on a distaff, and clad in female apparel, he became provoked; and he prevailed upon the nobility to enter into an alliance against him; and so the king was defeated in battle.122 Thereupon Sardanapalus went to his royal funeral pyre, which he himself had built, ignited it and burned himself and his countless treasures, and (as Tullius states) he ordered these words to be written at the place of his cremation: The things I had, I made; as well as those which have been produced by consummate licentiousness.123 And so this greatest of empires after a long time came to an end and was taken over by Media after 1305 years (as Augustine states in book 8 chapter 22 of his City of God); and so also the time of Belus124 the first king, is reckoned. Under the Medes the empire endured 128 years, for he turned this monarchy, or the rule of the East (as Justinus states) over to the Medes with expectations and not by deeds. This was afterward accomplished by Darius. Yet there were kings in Assyria after Sardanapalus (although they were not actually rulers or monarchs) up to the time of the destruction of Nineveh. Media is a country in Asia Minor, bordering on Assyria and Persia, and on the Caspian (Hyrcanian) Sea; and in it are said to be four regions. Medus, son of Media, built the city of Media in honor of his mother, and there he also founded the empire of Media, named for himself. The government of this country and the rule of the East were at that time in his hands. Although the empire attained to greatness and renown under Astyages the king,125 as stated in the first chapter of the Book of Judith, yet Cyrus the Persian king wiped it out and made it a part of Persia. After the Persians the Medes appear to have been subject to the Macedonians, and later to the Parthians.126
Caranus (Carnaus), the Macedonian, founded Macedonia, for he was quick of perception and active with his hands. After countless wars, which he conducted with great vigor against his nearest neighbors, the land of his origin became subservient to him, and there he set up his throne. As Eusebius states, he began to reign in the 12th year of Hoshea, and he reigned 28 years.127 But they say that Macedonia is a part of Europe, and we find that it was first named after Macedon, the son of Osyridis (Osiris?).128 According to Solinus, this land is bounded on the east by Thrace, on the south by Epirote Thessaly, on the west by Dardania and Greece, and on the north by Paphlagonia. The empire was small in the beginning, but by the might, power, and strength of its kings, the ambition of its people and its oppression of its neighbors, it became so great (as Pliny writes) that it embraced 150 peoples. Although the various parts of the empire were known by different names, it is now, like a single body, called by the single name Macedonia. The Macedonian empire, particularly in the time of Alexander the Great, was a splendid and powerful one; but in the time of Onie,129 the bishop of the Jews, it was destroyed. In that empire, indeed, we read that a certain memorable deed took place when the Illyrians and the Thracians, after gathering together, tried to destroy their neighbors, the Macedonians. After the battle had been engaged, the Macedonians were forced to flee. They brought the infant son of their dead king in his cradle, placed him next to the line of battle, and renewed the fight more fiercely, as if they had been defeated before because the fortune of their king of future victory was not with the soldiers fighting. Finally, with great slaughter, they routed the Illyrians, revealing to their enemies that in the earlier battle it was not courage that was lacking to the Macedonians, but their king, whose name, indeed, is unknown.130 And Macedonia, at that time, took possession of an empire of those lands that extend between two seas, the Aegean and the Adriatic. Its south flank touched the backs of Thessaly and Magnesia, while Paeonia and Paphlagonia were on its northern part, regions themselves which afterwards yielded to the power and authority of the Macedonians and were added to Macedonia. Also Epirus and the Illyrian land, the first south, the other north of Macedonia, extending to the Adriatic shore.131
Crown, orb, and scepter, differently arranged in two groups, are here used as paragraph divisions in the manner of Folio XLV recto, Folio XXIV recto, Folio XVIII, recto and verso. Where these designs occur, empires and kingdoms are treated of in the text.
Ardisius, or Ardis, a native of Greece, and a man celebrated and renowned for his magnanimity, founded the empire of Lydia, and in the 48th year of the kingdom of Hoshea (Ozie) he began to rule over the Lydians. According to Eusebius, he reigned 26 years. Lydia is a district in Asia Minor, and is now in part called Morea. And, as Pliny would have it, it was formerly called Maeonia (Meonia); but thereafter it was called Lydia after Lydus, son of king Atys (Athis) and brother of Tyrrhenus (Tyrrenus). For as the two brothers by reason of the meagerness of the kingdom were not able to get along, Tyrrhenus went away to a district in Italy, by the lower sea. This he called Tyrrhenia (Tyrrenam) after himself. But Lydus stayed at home, and he called the land of Maeonia, Lydia, after himself. In it were the cities of Ephesus, Colophon, Clazomenae, and Phocaea. But this kingdom was not renowned or celebrated, for it was overthrown by the Persians under King Croesus (Cresius), who gave assistance to the Chaldeans against the Persians. This kingdom endured for 230 years under nine kings, whose names and times are as stated:
| 1. | Aridisius | 36 years |
| 2. | Aliates (Aliaces) | 14 years |
| 3. | Meles | 12 years |
| 4. | Candaules | 17 years |
| 5. | Gyges (Gigius) | 36 years |
| 6. | Ardys (Ardis) | 37 years |
| 7. | Sadyattes (Sadyates) | 15 years |
| 8. | Alyattes (Aliactes) | 49 years |
| 9. | Croesus (Cresus) | 15 years132 |
Olympiad (Olimpias) is a period of four years that the Latins and Greeks at times used in their histories and narratives, just as we now calculate our dates according to the year of Hoshea (Ozie), and it was instituted for the practice of games of war. From the capture of Troy to the first Olympiad was a period of 406 years. The first Olympiad was held in the second year of Aeschylus, judge of the Athenians. In the games of this same Olympiad Coroebus (Chorebus) of the city of Elis (Heliensis) was the victor. Those of the same city in the fifth year played games in which princes were leaders. These Olympiads were first instituted by Iphitus (Iphirus), son of Praxonidis or Hemonis. Some state that Hercules in the eighth year of Jair, a judge of Israel, first instituted such Olympiads among the Greeks on Mount Olympus, in honor of Jupiter; and he desired that those after the fifth year should take place every five years; from which time to the present is reckoned 405 years. But after the Greeks became accustomed to holding the games every fifth year, they also appointed princes for four years; and they called this period an Olympiad. The games occurred every fifth year as they might be forgotten if postponed longer. On the other hand, if they were held oftener than every four years, the cost would have been burdensome. Therefore an Olympiad includes four full years. Our Lord Jesus Christ is said to have been born in the 193rd Olympiad. From this time on it is said that the Greek histories are authentic; but before then they were contradictory.133
[Note: The "Origin of the Spartans," the text that follows the paragraph on the Olympiad in the Latin edition of the Chronicle on folio LIV verso, does not exist in the German edition.]
The origin of the Spartan race also itself was at this time. When Alcumene (Alcamenes?134), the king of the Lacedaeniums (Lacedaemonians?) died, and their kingdom was destroyed, Justinus, in the third book of his Epitomes135, reports that the Spartans began in this way. The Lacedaemonians undertook a ten-year war against the Messenians. After a few years they were called back by the complaints of their wives after so long a widowhood. Afraid that they would lose the hope of future offspring through this never-ending war, they passed a law that their virgin daughters should sleep promiscuously with the young men left at home, supposing that pregnancy would occur sooner if each one of the women should try it with many men. Those born from these women were called Spartans, on account of the disgrace caused by their mother’s shame; and, when they arrived at the age of thirty, being alarmed by the fear of poverty (for not one of them had a father to whose estate he could hope to succeed), they chose Phalantus, the son of Aratus, as their leader. And so, without taking leave of their mothers from whose adultery they believed they had had become dishonorable, they set out to seek another place to live, and being tossed about a long time, and suffering various misfortunes, they at last arrived on the coast of Italy, where, after besieging the citadel of the Tarentines, and driving out the original inhabitants, they established their homes in that place. Afterwards the Egyptian kings and the Jews eagerly sought their friendship, as the Books of the Maccabees136 bear witness. But several years later, their leader Phalantus, being driven into exile by a political uprising, went to Brundusium, where the former inhabitants of Tarentum had retreated after they were expelled from their city.
Crown, orb and scepter appear at the head of the page as usual in the case of empires and kingdoms, as was previously done at Folio XLV recto, XXIV recto and XVIII recto and verso.
Uzziah (Ozias) (in the Year of the World 4388), son of Amaziah (Amasia) and twelfth king of Judah, was a very gentle and worthy man, who did good before the Lord; except that he usurped the office of priest, in this, that he himself, although Azariah was the priest, presumed to make a burnt offering on the altar of incense. Therefore he was smitten with leprosy.137 And an earthquake occurred, in consequence of which half a mountain was torn asunder and the royal garden was sunk.138 Yet Uzziah defeated the enemies all about him and beautified Jerusalem; and he rebuilt the walls that Joash (Joas) destroyed. Because of his leprosy he was removed from the city, and Jotham (Joatham) reigned in his stead. Upon his death Uzziah was buried in the sepulcher of the kings of Jerusalem.
Sardanapalus (Sardanapallus) was a depraved, unchaste, and effeminate man. He first introduced the use of the cushion or pillow. He associated with brazen women; and for these reasons loss and death followed him and divided his realm as previously related.139 Terrible times came and these continued almost to the birth of Christ, during which period human blood was spilled like water throughout the world.
Pul (Phull),140 the king of the Assyrians, and his successor endeavored to restore the monarchy; and in consequence they distressed the country in no small degree.
Jotham (Joathan) in the Year of the World 4440.141
Tiglath-pileser (Thleglathpalazar) captured the countries of Naphtali (Neptalim) and Galilee (Gallilea) and the lands beyond the Jordan, incorporating these into Assyria. Later, at the behest of Ahaz (Achas) he besieged Damascus and slew Rezin (Raasim), the king of Damascus.142
Shalmaneser (Salmanasar) besieged Samaria and added Israel to Assyria. The kingdom of Israel ended after enduring for 282 years.143
Ahaz (Achas) (in the Year of the World 4466)144 reigned in Judah after the death of his father Jotham (Joathan). He was the most evil, and zealously addicted to idolatry. Pekah (Phacee) came against him, and in a single day slew in battle 120,000 fighting men of Judah, and carried off 20,000 children, maidens and women as captives. But these he sent home again on the advice of the prophets.145 At this time Rome was built.146
Hezekiah (Ezechias) (in the Year of the World 4472)147, son of Ahaz (Achab) and 15th king of Judah, was the best and most pious, and he led the people back to the service of God. During his time the kingdom of the ten tribes declined and though Shalmaneser, the king, became part of Assyria. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, overran Hezekiah and his kingdom and besieged Jerusalem; but in answer to prayer and penance on the part of Hezekiah and Isaiah (Ysaye), the angel of the Lord in one night slew 285,000 men of the hosts of Sennacherib; and thus was Hezekiah relieved. Now, because of his boastful pride, or by reason of his ingratitude, Hezekiah was taken deathly ill; but through remorse and atonement he was restored to health. And as a sign of the cure the course of the sun was reversed by ten degrees. To the messengers of the king of Babylon he displayed all his riches; whereupon Isaiah prophesied to him that these same riches would be carried off by the Babylonians.148
Sennacherib (as already stated) disgracefully fled; and he came to Nineveh and tortured the Jews and Tobias. He was finally slain by his own sons.149
Manasseh (Manasses) (in the Year of the World 4501)150, son of Hezekiah, reigned after him in Judah for 55 years. He was a very evil man and inclined to idolatry and superstition. He slew the prophets, and Isaiah in particular he ordered to be cut apart with a wood saw. He was taken captive to Babylon, but upon his repentance and humility he received pardon and mercy, and was restored to his kingdom. After him reigned Amon, his son, who followed in the footsteps of his father in matters of sin, but not in repentance. He was slain by his relatives.151
The Lineage of Christ is here continued from Folio LIII recto, where it ended with Amaziah (Amasias). It is here resumed as follows:
The Assyrian Lineage is here continued from Folio XLII verson (which there ended with Thineus) and is here resumed as follows:
Zephaniah (Sophonias), the ninth of the twelve prophets, was a son of Cushi (Chus), noblest of men. To the Hebrews he prophesied the destruction and rebuilding of Jerusalem.152
Uriah (Urias), the prophet, was slain by king Jehoiakim (Jeconia).153
Habakkuk (Abacuck), tenth among the prophets, full of the spirit of prophecy, and held in esteem in Judah, prophesied against Nebuchadnezzar (Nabuchodonosor) and Babylonia. He also brought food to Daniel while in the lion’s den in Babylonia.154
Baruch was the scribe of Jeremiah the prophet. He made a prophetic book, and in it predicted the return from captivity.155
Jeremiah, the holiest of the prophets, sanctified from his mother’s womb (of a race) of priests, began to prophesy against Jerusalem and the temple, when he was still a child and but twelve years of age. And he prophesied for forty years, not including the years during which he prophesied in Egypt. And there, after many daring predictions, he was stoned by the people at Tahpanhes and buried in the same region; and after he drove out the snakes, he was honored.156
Seraiah (Sarayas) was slain by Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah with other advisers of Zedekiah.157
Huldah (Olda), the prophetess, was the wife of Shallum (Sellum) the high priest. She was illustrious and prophesied for Josiah (Josia), and particularly concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the captivity of its people.158
These six (referring to portraits of Mizahel, Hananiah (Ananias), Azariah (Azaias) Daniel (the text incorrectly reads David), Ezekiel (Ezechiel), and Merodach (Mardocheus) below the text) all yet children, were, together with Joachim, the king, carried to Babylonia in captivity. Nebuchadnezzar set up a golden image, 60 cubits high, in a field, and ordered all princes to attend upon its dedication and for the worship thereof. And the herald called out: You shall worship the image, and you who do not do so, will in this same hour be sent to the oven of the blazing fire. And they all worshipped it, except the servants of Daniel. For this they were accused before the king. Whereupon an oven was lighted sevenfold; and in it they were thrown, bound and fully clad. But the flames killed the men who put them into the oven. And the angel of the Lord entered the oven like a blowing wind of mist, and refreshed them. Thereupon the three children praised and sanctified the Lord God, as with a single mouth.159
Jehozadak (Iosedech), the priest, a son of Seraiah (Azaria), was, when the Lord through Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Judah and Jerusalem by force, taken captive with others to Babylonia. Some say he was Ezdra, the writer and priest, or, perchance his brother.160
The Priestly Line is here continued from Folio LIII verso, which there ended with Shallum (Sellum, misprinted "Bellum"). We resume:
The prophets are resumed from folio LIII verso:
The Men in the Fiery Furnace--Mizahel, Hananiah (Ananias), and Azariah (Azarias)--are here depicted in the blazing oven or furnace, which among the Chaldaeans was a device used for capital punishment (Jer. 29:22; Dan. 3:19-26; Rev. 1:15; 9:2). Although the intended victims had attained to manhood before they were obliged to undergo this ordeal, they are here represented as three children, neatly clad as choir boys, no doubt to indicate that (according to the text of the Vulgate) they sang the praises of the Lord amidst the flames (see Text and Note, above).
Rhea, who was also called Ilia, daughter of Numitor the king, was at this time still a virgin. After her father was deposed by her uncle Amulius, she was placed among the virgins of the Vesta, the goddess of the fire, in order to compel her to remain a perpetual virgin. But when she became of full age and was moved by unchaste desires, she submitted to the most unworthy embraces of an unknown man. By him she became pregnant, and bore the twins Romulus and Remus. Because of this she was buried alive at the command of Amulius, her uncle. Thereafter he ordered the twins to be thrown into the Tiber at Rome. But when the servants could not get to the banks of the river itself because of the abundance of overflowing water, they placed the twins on the shore; and so Romulus and Remus were not done away with as Amulius had ordered. When the water receded, a she-wolf heard the cries of the children; and she left her young and followed the crying of the children. And she mothered them. Faustulus, the king’s shepherd, found the children beside a tree and carried them home. He brought them up among the shepherds, according to their coarse peasant life. Some say they were the children of the pagan god Mars because they were born in the forest of Mars, or were nourished by a she-wolf (who is under the protection of this same Mars). As they grew up among the shepherds, they grew in size and fighting strength and waywardness from day to day. And when they became of age they murdered their uncle the king, and reinstated Numitor, their ancestor, as king. But in the following year he was deposed. And so were extinguished the names of the Latin or Albanian kings, a line of twenty-one kings, who had reigned six hundred and twenty-three years.
Remus, son of the Vestal Virgin Rhea, in this year, together with his brother Romulus, began the building of a city, which is now Rome. And as they were twins and equal heirs, they agreed to determine by means of bird augury which one was to rule and to name the city after him, Remus (who was in possession of the Aventine hill) first saw six vultures; and thereafter Romulus (who possessed the Palatine hill) saw twelve vultures. This, Romulus interpreted to mean that as he saw the greater number of birds, he should be the ruler of the city, and that the city according to the omen of the bloodthirsty birds of prey, would be a fighting one. Now, it was reckoned that an embankment which was thrown up, should be sufficient to protect the city. Remus laughed at that, and ridiculed Romulus. For this he was slain (some say at the behest of his brother, others say at the request of Fabius, the captain of the horse of Romulus). And he was buried outside the city because he had overstepped the marks or limits of the future wall of that city. This was the first sacrifice, by means of which he sanctified the fortification of the new city by his blood.161
Romulus, first king of the Romans, at the age of twenty-one years and in the three hundred and twenty-fourth year of David’s kingdom (when Numitor was slain and the Latin kingdom became disrupted), together with his brother Remus and by the assistance of a number of shepherds, built a little village on unprotected ground; and he named it for himself. There (as Eusebius writes) he began to reign in the same year, and he reigned 38 years. Although Romulus was of doubtful origin, as Plutarch states, his natural manners and characteristics were not servile. He carried himself with royal dignity and courage, and gave promise of a ready and warlike disposition. He was a very eloquent speaker, and of civic renown; and therefore he attained high honors. After Rome was built he singled out those who had arrived at a sturdy age, and established military ranks for the practice of war. The rest of the inhabitants he called the people (populus). Therefore he created senators whom he called fathers (patres), his own progeny he called patricians. But as there was a dearth of inhabitants, he provided a forest in the vicinity, free to the general public; and to it came a great many people from many places; and thus was made up the Roman population. Therefore Romulus decreed that alleged games should be held: and many maidens living in the vicinity came to see the games, and were captured by the Romans and married. This was the cause of much war. The strength of the city being soon increased, this most wise king made the following arrangement in the state; that the young men, divided into tribes, should be ready, with horses and arms, for any sudden demands of war. When he had thus regulated matters, and was holding an assembly of the people at the lake of Caprea, near the city, he was suddenly snatched out of their sight.and once upon a time, outside the city, near a pool there, he was suddenly withdrawn from humankind.162
Here we have the beginning of a new genealogy:
Numa Pompilius, second Roman king, succeeded Romulus in the 27th year of the kingdom of Hezekiah; and he reigned 41 years. Because of his piety he was elected king by the Sabine people. He taught spiritual exercises and the worship of the immortal gods, and instituted a priesthood of flamens, prophets, and others. He divided the year into twelve months, and ordered and prescribed the days of work and the holidays. All these things he ascribed to the goddess Egeria so that the rabble would more readily accept them and the uncivilized people brought to obedience. And so with justice and piety he ruled over a land that he had acquired by stealth and injustice. Later he died of a slight illness at the age of eighty years.163
Tullus Hostilius, third Roman king, was elected by the Romans in the thirty-ninth year of the reign of Manassah, and he reigned 31 years. The sovereignty was voluntarily turned over to him in view of his virtue and ability, although he was of vulgar peasant origin. His cradle was (as Eutropius writes) a rustic hut164, and he herded cattle in his youth but finally wore the purple and the crown jewels. He enlarged the city of Rome so as to comprehend the Caelionian hill (Mons Caelius). After a long period of peace, he warred against the Albans, defeated them and sent them to Rome, and destroyed their city, except the temples. When he had reached his greatest glory in war, he and his entire house were finally destroyed by a flash of lightning.165
Ancus (Anchus) Marcius, born of Numa’s daughter, the fourth Roman king, received the Roman kingdom in the fourth year of the reign of Josiah (Josia), and reigned 25 years. Among his ancestors he was not the least in the arts and in renown for peace and war. He surrounded the battlements with a wall, and added the Aventine and the Janiculum hills to the city. He threw the first bridge over the Tiber, and built the city of Ostia (Hostia) by the sea, 16 miles from Rome. Finally he was seized by the plague and exchanged life for death.166
Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth Roman king, was elected in the twenty-seventh year of the reign of Josiah (Josia) and reigned 37 years. And although he was a native of the city of Corinth in Greece, nevertheless, by reason of his valor and distinction, he was elevated to the Roman throne. He revived Greek learning and Italian art, and enlarged the number of senators by three hundred. He was better qualified for war than for peace. By force of arms he subdued twelve peoples of Tuscany, and celebrated his triumph in a golden chariot drawn by four horses. Finally, after many strenuous deeds he was slain by the Sons of Ancus.167
At this time the kings still used lances instead of a diadem, which the Greeks called scepters. From the beginning the ancients honored the lance as a symbol of the immortal gods; and on account of the memory of this religion, lances are added to the images of the gods.
Phalaris (Phaleris), tyrant and orator of Agrigentum, flourished at this time. To him came secretly from Athens an ingenious artisan. And as this artisan was familiar with the gruesomeness of this tyrant, he made for him, in order to please him, a brazen bull. In its side he made a door by which evil-doers were locked inside it; and they were punished by placing a fire under the bull. The cries of the victims were to imitate the bellowing of the bull. When the artisan asked compensation for his work, the king ordered him locked within the bull. Thus he became the first victim of his own invention. Ovid writes: There can be no more even justice than that one should suffer the same penalty, which by artifice he has prepared for others. And such was the answer of Phalaris to the Athenians who complained to the king of the handiwork of their own artisan.168
The Erythraean (Erithrea) Sibyl, the most celebrated of them all, was a native of Babylonia, and lived at this time. She was dressed in the garb of a monk, wore a black veil, and carried a naked sword in her hand. She was not very old but her countenance was moderately sorrowful. Under her feet was a golden circle set with stars in likeness of the heavens. She speaks thus: In the final age God will be humbled; the divine seed will become mortal; the Godhead will become obedient to mankind; the Lamb will lie in the hay and will be nourished by attendant virgins.
The Lineage of the Roman Kings is here continued from Folio LVI recto, where Rhea, Remus, and Romulus appeared.
The Erythraean Sibyl (Sibilla Erithea) is represented by a woodcut of special design. She wears a monkish robe and black veil; carries the naked sword in one hand and the golden ring studded with stars, in the other. She is a middle-aged woman and rather sad of countenance—all in accordance with the marks given her by the chronicler.
Rome, a city celebrated throughout the world, mistress of all things in Italy, and lying beside the Tiber, was named after Romulus its builder. It was built by him in the eleventh year of Hezekiah (Ezechie), king of Judah, and in the second year of the eighth Olympiad. Although many writers speak of the size of the city, Flavius Vopiscus (Vopistus),169 among others, states that the emperor Aurelius enlarged the city to a circumference of thirty thousand paces. However, the measurements of the ancients are not comparable with our own. The Tiber flows into the city from the north and out again on the southern aide in the direction of the city of Ostia, leaving the hills of Vaticanus and Janiculum beyond the river, on the right. On the left the municipal boundaries comprehend seven hills. Pliny states that the city had thirty open gates and seven which were closed.170 But as the city increased from time to time, the gates of the last enclosure lost their identity or form; and the city was later destroyed, we will not undertake to discover them all. The first gate was called Porta Flumentana; the second, Pinciana; the third, Salaria (Solaria); the fourth, Viminalis, now St. Agnes, or Nomentana (Numentana); the fifth, Esquilina (Exquilina), now St. Lawrence; the sixth, Naevia (Nenia); the seventh, Asinaria (Asmaria), now named St. John, but called Caelimontana (Celimontana) by the ancients; the eighth, now enclosed in an angle, is called the Porta Metrovia (Metrodori) and was known to the ancients as Cabiusam, and later as the Porta Latina. One called Appia, formerly Capena; the last, in the region of the Tiber, erstwhile Ostiensis and called St. Paul; for it leads to his church and toward Ostia. There is yet another in the region of the Tiber, called Carmentalis. Lastly, Triumphalis, or the Gate of Victory, the most celebrated of all, and which in our own time is the one through which triumphs and victory games proceed. There one may see the great buildings on the outer shores of the Tiber; also a bridge leading to the Hospital of the Holy Spirit; also the way which is called the field of victory, which, together with its appurtenances is called the Vatican, so named after the hill that lies by St. Peter’s Church, and which is visited more zealously and is regarded as more holy than any other place because of the relics of St. Peter and because of its High Church and the Papal Palace founded by Pope Nicholas II. It has a large pleasure garden, enclosed by a wall. The Janiculum is a quarter beyond the Tiber. Pope Leo IV first fortified the Vatican with a wall, and after him it was called the Leonine City. Rome has seven hills, the Capitoline, Aventine, Palatine, Caelian, Esquiline, Viminal, and the Quirinal; and after these Rome was called the City of the Seven Hills. Capitoline means a chief, or head mount or hill; for when the foundations were dug for the Temple of Jove, a human skull was found there. Previously it was called the Tarpeian Rock, after Tarpeia, the vestal virgin.171 On this hill was the celebrated Temple of Jove, the great pagan god. The adornments of this entire hill even excelled the wonderful works of the Egyptians, and it was called the Golden Capitol, or abode of the gods. Beside it were two markets, one of oxen and the other of fish. Although this hill once had a remarkable number of small churches and temples, there is at present no church there except the Ara Caeli of the Franciscan Brothers. The Aventine Hill is so called after the people who came there, or after Aventinus Albanus, the king, who was buried there. On this hill many altars and temples were erected to gods and goddesses. Here also was a laurel wood, and a scattering of houses. At present the cloisters of St. Sabine and St. Boniface are located there. The rest of the hill is covered with buildings in a ruinous state, and with vineyards, except for the monastery of St. Alexius, and this appears to be very ancient. The Palatine Hill derived its name from Pallantinians, who came to Rome with Evander,172 the king of Arcadia, and who (according to Cornelius Tacitus) gave Rome its beginning by building on the same hill. On this hill, kings and senators, and later the emperors, had their official seats and residences. Here also was the Temple of Victory.173 To it (as Pliny writes) was brought the great mother of the gods of Greece. There was also the Temple of Febris,174 and the Temple of the emperor Augustus, which was later destroyed by fire.175 The emperor Caius Caligula (C. Callcula) by means of a bridge over the temple joined the Palatine and Capitoline hills. The emperor Augustus here erected the Temple of Apollinis,176 and added to it a structure with a Latin and Greek library. In the same region the ancients often held their councils. The same building was adorned with wonderful work. Although this greatly celebrated hill was once upon a time the site of magnificent and costly structures, as the ruins still testify, yet there is no building upon the hill now other than St. Nicholas Church built by Calixtus, the pope, but which is no longer entire. Now there was in this region of the Palatine (Pallacii), toward the north, looking in the direction of the triumphal arch of Constantine, the site of the statue of the goddess Minerva. And here also are remarkable buildings, in a ruinous state,
with dual gates of marble. There also, enclosed by the surrounding wall, is the church of St. Andrew de Pallara. The remaining area is covered with vineyards and is surrounded by a high wall. The Caelian Hill is named for the Duke Caelius Iubonnius (Iubaenius), who came to the assistance of Romulus against Latium. This hill was added to the city when Tullus Hostilius destroyed the city of Alba (Longa); and thereafter he himself lived there, building a palace which he called Hostilia.177 On the same hill Vespasian built the temple of Claudius. In this same region were many houses of the gods, temples and altars; the great slaughter-house; the cave of the Cyclops, the houses of prostitution; the society of the five watchers or wardens; the tents of the pilgrims, and the cattle sheds. In the middle of its ridge are two aqueducts, one of which is very tall. Now, however, this hill is adorned with Christian churches. In the region lying against the Palatine hill is the monastery of St. Gregory, built there upon his father’s land; and St. John’s and St. Paul’s church. And there is the hospital of Salvator, and the church of St. Mary in Dominica; also Stephen’s church, which was later adorned by Pope Simplicius. To the left of the same hill is the church of the four crowns, and St. Erasmus monastery. The latest building on the hill is a pilgrim’s refuge, called Laterenese (Lateranense). At the extreme end of the hill there is now the Lateran Church, so called because it was built on the soil of the most noble Lateran people. This worthy church contains the heads of the apostles and other holy relics. It is very tall, and renowned throughout the world. It was given to Pope Sylvester by the Emperor Constantine, and was called the Church of Constantine. This church was the first seat of the Roman bishops, and they had their residences there. Now, however, most of the palaces about the church are in ruins. Near this hill is the great gate of Naevia, and the half-destroyed theater. Some call this the castle of wonders. There also is the church of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem, built by Helena, mother of Constantine, on the site where the Temple of Venus and Cupid formerly stood. Beside it is a Carthusian monastery. On the hill called the Esquiline, which is the largest, is the church called St. Mary Maggiore. On this hill were many wonderful buildings; and firstly,
upward of the tower of the nobility, are the ruined buildings of the baths of the Emperor Constantine, and the great marble pillars of a half-naked age. Not far removed from it are marble horses with half-naked riders, wonderful works of art; also the vaulted baths of Diocletian—very wonderful and beautiful; and also many residences of celebrated persons. There too was a slaughterhouse, and St. Vitus Church. Adjoining this is the triumphal arch of Galicenus; and so there are many churches and innumerable other things. The hill, called Viminal, derived its name from Jove Vimineus, whose buildings are there. And although many houses were erected on this hill, a number are no longer there, except three of the most beautiful palaces in the whole city, namely those of M. Crassus, Q. Catullus, and C. Acquilius. The hill of Quirinal was named after the temple of Quirinus. Varro the teacher, called those elevations hills because they are small. Livy writes that Servius the king added the nearest two hills to the city in order to enlarge it; and in order to give this region prestige, he lived there himself. He surrounded the city with a wall and moat. Rome is closed on the east by the hill Tarquinus, where now stands the church of St. Mary of Popolo. A water, which is called virgin, flows through the recesses of the Quirinal hill, and now by its own force flows from the outer waters to the city of Rome. In the neighborhood of this hill is the Campus Martius, lying between the city and the Tiber.178 Some wonderful buildings were located there; but of these only the ruins are to be seen. There also is the Church of St. Mary in Ecuria; and the Temple of Isis (Isidis).179 Here is also a memorable monument, where the elections of Roman senators took place. In Rome there were also twelve caves, wonderful structures, and aqueducts.180 And so one sees and reads about many triumphal arches through which the Roman emperors were escorted after their victories over the enemy. Some of these have been destroyed, some buried in ruin, and others replaced by new buildings; and thus the old has been removed from the sight of man. And so are seen the sights of different buildings and famous ruins. Therefore with these we leave the description of Rome.181
Rome, it delights me to gaze upon your ruins. From its fall ancient glory is made clear. But your people today have baked hard marble dug up from its ancient walls into the pliancy of lime. If this impious people should live three hundred more years, there will be no sign left of its nobility.182
The City of Rome is represented by a special woodcut (9" in height) extending across the verso and recto of Folios LVII and LVIII. From the standpoint of direction and the location of the various places of interest, this pictorial map involves considerable guesswork. We cannot get our bearings by assuming any particular compass-point. The upper part of the woodcut is certainly not north; nor will it submit to the test of being any one of the other three cardinal points. Both Republican and Imperial Rome were situated to the east of the Tiber, which although irregular in its course, has a general direction from north to south. But let us begin in the lower right-hand corner.
Castle St. Angelo (Castellum S. Angeli), the circular structure to the right, just across the Tiber (Tiberius Fluvius), is one of the massive remains of Imperial Rome, and none other than the Mausoleum of Hadrian, by which name it may be identified on the maps of the ancient city. In actuality it stands to the north of a bend in the Tiber where that river veers to the east for a short distance. It is located on the site where once were the gardens of Domitia, overlooking the undulating plains of the Campagna in its rear. The structure is surmounted by a bronze figure of the Archangel Michael, poised as if he had just alighted with outspread wings and flowing mantle, and had paused there in the act of sheathing his sword. The woodcut suggests this figure, but it has given the Archangel a more militant attitude. His wings are outspread, but his sword is in action as thought about to strike.
Beneath this forbidding edifice flow the troubled waters of the Tiber into which it has cast its wavering reflection for over eighteen centuries. The structure leading to it across the river is the ancient Aelian Bridge, which has also changed its name and is now the Ponte St. Angelo.
The Mausoleum was built by Hadrian in the latter part of the second century. It was constructed of brisk work and square blocks of peperino-stone laid with such care and exactness that lightning, war and earthquake have failed to shake its perfect solidity. Inside and out it was faced with courses of Parian marble. The basement was a square of about 340 feet each way and about 75 feet in height. This is not indicated in the woodcut. Above this rose a circular tower of some 235 feet in diameter and 140 feet high, divided into two or three stories and ornamented with columns. Above the circular tower there was originally a dome or curvilinear roof, which must have risen to a height of some 300 feet. Apparently the roof was originally crowned by a colossal group representing Hadrian in a chariot drawn by four horses. Rich friezes girded the building around. On each of the four sides of the basement was a massive door of gilt bronze, and at each of these doors were four horses. Between the doors were large tablets to be inscribed with the names and titles of the emperors who were to be buried within it. The walls were of immense thickness and of solid workmanship. In the center were two chambers in the shape of a Greek cross, one above the other, and here the ashes of the emperors were deposited.
The magnificent Aelian Bridge, resting on massive arches, formed the avenue by which the Mausoleum was approached by the funeral processions that bore the ashes of the dead emperors to their final resting place. But after Severus no emperor was buried in this Mausoleum, his successors being interred in the tombs of their families.
For centuries we have no glimpse of the Mausoleum in history, and as the curtain lifts, it is no longer a tomb but a fortress. We know that by the 6th century it had become part of the city’s fortification, and was joined to its wall. As such it was assaulted and defended for centuries, and so we may readily understand how its character changed from Mausoleum to Castle.
In 846 the Saracens invaded Italy, and Leo IV, a Roman by birth, undertook the fortification of Rome, and enclosed it with a wall that portion of it surrounding the Vatican, which has ever since been called after him the Leonine City. The wall commenced at the Castle St. Angelo, enclosed St. Peters, and extended into the river below the gate of Sancto Spirito (‘Holy Spirit’). The chronicler makes a brief reference to these facts in the text.
How the Mausoleum received the name St. Angelo is another story. In the year 590 Gregory the Great was elected Pope. Rome was then at its lowest ebb of suffering and disgrace at the hands of the Goths under Totila. Its population had shrunk and it was no longer the seat of empire. Earthquakes and floods had added to the work of destruction. And now came famine and pestilence in the wake. Vainly the people implored he mercy of Heaven. It was in the midst of these horrors and calamities that, as Gregory was passing the Mausoleum at the head of a penitential procession, he looked up and beheld hovering over it the figure of the archangel Michael, who paused in the act of sheathing his flaming sword. This vision he interpreted as a token from heaven that the pestilence should cease. And so the plague diminished, and finally ceased altogether; and in celebration of that a chapel was later erected on the top of the Mausoleum by Boniface the Ninth, which was dedicated to St. Michael, and received the name of St. Angelo. It is from this course of events that the structure itself became henceforth known as the Castle of St. Angelo.
Just how the Castle looked in the days when the Chronicle was written may be seen from a curious and interesting painting by Vittore Carpaccio, in the Academy of Fine Arts in Venice. It represents the pope as coming forth with his train of cardinals from the Castle to receive Saint Ursula and her virgins, accompanied by the son of the King of England, who was betrothed to her. The span of Carpaccio’s life was from 1465 to 1522, his artistic career covering the range from 1490 to 1519. In this picture is given a careful representation, by way of background, of the Castle St. Angelo as it was at this period. Above the circle of the ancient tomb rises a high machicolated square tower occupying almost its entire diameter, and again above this is a second and smaller tower, also machicolated, on the top of which is the figure of the winged angel, the whole surrounded by massive walls, with round towers at each corner. And so it appears in this woodcut.
Just how Hadrian, his horses and chariot, left their dizzy height does not seem to be recorded. It would seem that after the vision of Gregory a great marble angel was actually placed there instead; for it is related that on October 29, 1497, four years after the Chronicle was published, a flash of lightning struck one of the magazines of the Castle, instantly exploding it, shattering to fragments the upper part of the fortress, blowing into the air the great marble angel on the top, and flinging pieces of it a considerable distance. Sixty persons were wounded by this explosion, but no one was killed. Under the pontificate of Clement II some improvements were made in the Castle. To replace the angel that had been thus blown to pieces another statue of marble was made by Raphael, representing the same subject. This was placed on the summit of the square tower. But as already stated, the present incumbent of the "high place" is of bronze, the work of the Flemish sculptor Verschaffelt. (It was set up in 1752 in the place of the marble angel of the 16th century.)
The terrible history of human baseness, tyranny, hypocrisy, arrogance and misery which this once ancient tomb, originally intended as a final resting place, witnessed after it became a fortress, it is not possible to relate in this brief note. History will ever record the tragic story of Beatrice Cenci so closely connected by tradition with the Castle St. Angelo.
The Antonine Column (Columna Antoniana). Let us return via the Ponte St. Angelo to this side of the Tiber, and proceed to the left. Here we find a huge column, inscribed by the woodcutter as parenthetically noted above. Although such columns were used chiefly to support buildings, either within or without, single columns were also erected in Rome commemorate persons or events. More often they were a monument to the dead. They varied in size even as monuments do in our day. They were surmounted with a statue of the deceased, and the pedestal was equipped with a door which led to a spiral staircase ascending to the summit. Light was admitted through various apertures in the column. Frequently a spiral bas-relief runs about the pillar pictorially recording the victories and other events in the life of the deceased.
This particular column was erected to the memory of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, in the Campus Martius, and is still in existence. It is located to the east of the Tiber and almost due east of the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and not to the west as would appear by the woodcut. It will be found noted on any map of Imperial Rome. A similar column and in the same vicinity was erected to Antoninus Plus after his death. There is an interesting relationship between the three men under discussion. Hadrian, weary with the affairs of state, formally adopted Antoninus and passed the empire on to him upon condition that Antoninus would in turn adopt Marcus Aurelius and name him as his successor. And in that order these men followed one another as heads of the Roman state.
In the left foreground, beside the Antonine Column, appears the church of Santa Maria Rotunda (Maria Rotu(n)da), originally the Roman Pantheon begun by Agrippa in 27 BCE, probably as a rectangular building of the ordinary temple type. It was completely rebuilt by Hadrian, in its present circular form (110-125), the columns of the present front porch being probably those of the earlier building. Under Septimus Severus repairs and alterations were made; it is likely that at this time the rectangular coffers were cut on the inside face of the dome. The Roman Pantheon is remarkable, not only for its size, the dome being 144 feet in diameter, and for its elaborate brick construction, but also for its perfect preservation and the fact that for almost 2,000 years it has served continuously as a place of worship, having been dedicated in 609 CE as the church of Santa Maria Rotunda; and so it is designated on the woodcut, but no description of it is given in the text.
The Pantheon was originally erected as a temple to ‘all gods’ (the meaning of the Greek word ‘pantheon’), but its present form is almost certainly due to Hadrian. The porch has no very close relation to the rotunda, the entablature stopping short. Its high gable and large pediment are in strong contrast to the flattened Byzantine dome. The porch has sixteen great Corinthian columns. As has been observed, from the strictly aesthetic point of view the porch might have been dispensed with altogether. The dome, paneled in a receding perspective, soars upward to the saucer of light that is the sky, and a single shaft of light completes the artistic unity of the interior composition. The dome was likened by the Romans themselves to the vault of heaven. Niches in the interior contained great statues of the gods, who have been replaced by the tombs of the Renaissance, including the Tomb of Raphael, and by decorations which signal the conversion of the place into "Santa Maria Rotunda."
In the central background is indicated the Church of St. Peter. The Emperor Constantine I gave freedom to the Church in 313, and according to tradition, he began the construction of a splendid basilica on the Vatican hill over St. Peter’s tomb. This was not completed until 349, in the reign of Constantius. Nothing unfortunately remains of Constantine’s basilica, or of the splendid monuments with which it was adorned in the course of nearly twelve centuries, with the exception of a few remains preserved in the crypts of the present basilica. The church had the form of a structure that the Greek name (‘basilica’) implies. It had five naves, and its walls were adorned with painting and mosaic, that were much admired by pilgrims. Its five doors opened on a great square atrium called Paradisus, which was surrounded by a colonnade and in which there gradually accumulated the tombs of all the popes, emperors, kings, and princes who expressed a wish to be buried near St. Peter’s tomb.
In the course of time this venerable edifice became so damaged that Pope Nicholas V determined on its reconstruction. The structure leaned so much to one side that it was deemed best to demolish it altogether, and to build a new one on the same site. On April 11, 1506 Pope Julius II laid the first stone of the new basilica; and it was not until 1603 that this was completed, according to the original plan in the form of a Greek cross. Just how the church looked in 1493 we do not know, but its appearance as vouched for by the present woodcut is confirmed by Breydenbach (Journey to the Holy Land, 1483-4). This view is almost identical with that of Breydenbach. It may be that in common with the earliest authentic view of Rome (that in P. Bergomensis, Suppl. Chronicarum, Venice, 1490), both examples were adapted from a woodcut, drawing, or painting earlier than 1490, not now in existence. Reconstructions of the Church of St. Peter, as it appeared in the Middle Ages, have been attempted, and good examples will be found in Die Stadt Rom zu Ende der Renaissance, by Ludwig von Pastor (Herder & Company, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1925). The illustration at pages 14-15, a reconstruction by Brewer and Crostarosa, shows a striking resemblance to the façade of St. Peter’s in the woodcut before us.
Genoa (Genua), mistress and queen of the Ligurians, and also called Janua, is a very renowned city in Italy, situated on the shores of the Ligurian Gulf.183 It was built by Genuo, son of King Saturn, and was named after him. Paulus Perusinus says that the city derived its name from Genuinus, the associate of Phetontis. Others write that it was built by Janus, the Italian king, and was enlarged after (the fall of) Troy, and that the image of Janus was there first reverenced. However, some state that no mention of the city occurs before the time of the African War.184 Livy says that the rule of Lucretius was postponed until he had rebuilt the city of Genoa, which Mago, the Poeni,185 had destroyed. Thereafter the Romans availed themselves of the friendship of the Ligurians and Genoese, who aided them with men and material useful in their wars. From this it appears that Genoa was well favored by its natural position and its wealth in shipping. Charlemagne and his son Pepin, a king of Italy, and their Frankish successors, ruled this and other Italian cities with great righteousness and goodness, appointing dukes (called counts) to administer their affairs. Genoa was also a market for this entire region; and it prospered so tremendously that by reason of its attainment of great power and strength in ships, and its tall buildings and various adornments, it now excels all other Italian maritime cities except Venice. Genoa became so proficient in naval warfare that for many years it ruled the seas and protected them against murderous pirates. But after the time of Charlemagne the city suffered under such gross tyranny that it was obliged to invoke foreign masters; while on account of internal dissension it lost its maritime power. Both East and West were so astounded by its frequent transformations, that Genoa remained helpless and without counsel or advice; and the power which she had exercised far and wide became exhausted. It lost the city of Pera,186 near Constantinople; also Mytiline;187 Famagusta, capital of the island of Cyprus; the island of Chios, and other Greek islands and places that she had captured from the Turks and other peoples, or had compelled to pay tribute. But this city is blessed by the ashes of the forerunner of the Lord, and with the precious smaragdine Sacro Catino, a bowl or basin from which (as they say) the Lord Jesus Christ and his disciples partook of the Paschal Lamb at the Last Supper.188
Genoa is represented by a special woodcut. The city is depicted as situated on the Gulf of Genoa, or old Ligurian Sea. True to topographical conditions, the artist has left only a small space of level ground along the shore, from which the city has been obliged to climb the lower hills of the Ligurian Alps. The original nucleus of the town is that portion which lies to the east of the port in the neighborhood of the old pier (Molo Vecchio). In addition to the fortifications, the main architectural features of the city are its medieval palaces and churches. To indicate the maritime nature of the town, a sailing vessel with a full complement of oarsmen is entering or leaving the harbor. A number of wharves projecting into the harbor are another characteristic. The flag of Genoa floats over several structures.
Thales (Tales), the Asiatic philosopher and first among the Seven Sages of Greece, flourished in Athens at this time. The Seven Sages were named after him.189 Thales was the first among the philosophers to practice astrology and to predict an eclipse of the sun. He acquired a knowledge of geometry from the Egyptians. He was also an excellent counselor in matters pertaining to civic customs. He had (as they say) no wife, and when asked why he did not take one, he replied that it was because of his love of children. He contended that water is the origin of all things, and stated that the world was associated with and born of the devil. It is said that he also invented the year, and divided it into 365 days. He wrote on the subject of astronomy, and his writings are comprehended in 200 verses. When a golden table (tripod) was accidentally found, and there was a misunderstanding as to whom it belonged, Apollo answered that it should be awarded to him who excelled all others in wisdom. So it was offered to Thales, but he gave it to Bias and Bias Pitachus. At last the table came to Solon, but he turned it over to Apollo, as a token of most renowned wisdom. Thales was poor and he devoted himself to the acquisition of wisdom. Item: By means of astronomy he was able to predict fruitfulness in future years. One night when he was led out of his house by an old woman to study the stars he fell into a hole. And the old woman said to him, If you cannot see what lies at your feet, how can you expect to recognize the things that are in the heavens? He died at 78 years of age.190
Solon, the philosopher, second among the Seven Wise Men, flourished at Athens, and to the Athenians he gave wholesome laws, which the Romans later adopted. These laws were of considerable merit, and his wisdom relieved the people of subservience and oppression. After a change of fortune Solon fled to Egypt. In his later years he opposed the tyrant Pisistratus, who sought to oppress the Athenians. When asked in what he placed his trust in so boldly resisting the tyrant, Solon replied that he was relying on his old age. He stated that tyrants compared the good and virtuous with counters, which at one time were of consequence and at another time of none. Asked by Croesus whom he considered happiest, Solon replied, Those who are unknown and whose fame or credit is hidden. But Croesus greatly bedecked himself and sat with pride upon his throne; and he asked Solon whether he had ever seen such a wonderful and well endowed throne. And Solon replied that he had seen cocks, pheasants and peacocks who by nature were endowed with a thousand fold superior colors and plumage. When Solon wept over his dead son, a man told him not to weep, reminding him that this was of no avail. But Solon replied, Therefore I weep all the more for I realize that my loss is irreparable. When asked whether he wished his relatives to mourn his death, he said, I have labored with much zeal so that I will not die unlamented by my friends. He also stated that no one should say that he suffered greater sorrows than others. He formulated other laws: He who does not support his needy parents is not worthy of good repute. The children of those who have departed should, for the common good, be reared and educated at public charge. A guardian shall not live with the mother of the ward, nor should one act as guardian to whom the estate of the minor might descend upon the latter’s death. The ring engraver should not retain the inscriptions on rings he sells. He who deprives a one-eyed person of sight shall suffer the loss of both his own eyes. Drunken princes are to be put to death. Responses of Solon to certain questions are these: What is a word? A word is the reflection of the deed; therefore the word is strengthened by silence, and silence by time. What is a strong king? A power. What is the law? A spiderweb in which the weak are entangled, but through which the mighty pass, breaking the web. Solon died at the age of eighty years in the time of King Hezekiah (Sedechie).191
Chilon, the third sage, flourished at Athens in the time of Zedekiah. Because of his deep wisdom he was called the laconic speaker. He was delegated to Corinth to bring about an alliance and understanding; but when he there saw the dukes and elders of the people playing dice, he returned home without transacting the business, stating that he did not care to besmirch the honor and glory of the Spartans with such folly. He did not want it to be said that he had made an alliance with men who play games of chance. When asked to define luck, he answered, It is an unknowing physician. This man Chilon taught the taming of the tongue, particularly in trade. Not to speak ill of one’s neighbor, for he might hear of it and be saddened thereby. Item: Threaten no one; for that is womanish. It is preferable to go to a friend in trouble than to one who is fortunate. Be humble in festivities and speak not ill of the dead. Honor old age. Know yourself. Control your temper. Do not crave the impossible. Do not laugh at the unfortunate. A lord should be gentle so that his subordinates will honor him more than fear him. One should prefer to sustain a loss rather than a gain through evil; for the loss brings sorrow but once; but an evil gain is a sorrow forever. He too was famous in the time of King Hezekiah. He lived, moreover, 56 years.192
Solon is represented here by a woodcut used for the first time. He is clothed in a sort of Oriental fez and a robe of many folds. He has a decidedly aquiline profile, and is diligently engaged in the study of a book.
In the Latin edition of the Chronicle the woodcut representing Solon is used in the German edition for Thales.
Pittacus (Pitacus) of Asia was the fourth of the Seven Sages. He was not only brilliant in learning but performed valorous deeds in the war between the Athenians and Mytilenaeans. He led the hosts of the latter. He fought a personal encounter with Phrynon (Firmone), leader of the Athenians. He concealed a net under his shield; with it he entangled Phrynon, slew him, and thus freed his country. The Mytilenaeans conferred the sovereignty on him, and he ruled over them for ten years, bringing the city into good order. At the end of that time he abdicated; and he lived another ten years. Although he might have become wealthy, he scorned all riches. When he saw an abundance of wine growing on the island of Mytilene, he made a public law against drunkenness, doubling the punishment for crime when committed by a drunkard; for he said that wine was good and evil—evil through excess, good by nature. He stated that reciprocal righteousness is the greatest virtue. The earth is a faithful thing, the sea a treacherous one. He lived seventy years, having flourished in the time of Joachim, king of Judah.193
Bias of Asia was the fifth among the Seven Sages. War arose between the Prienesians and the Messenians, in which the warriors of the former carried away many of the Messenian virgins. Bias sympathized with them and cared for them as he would for his own daughter. He furnished them new apparel, gave each a present, and returned them to their parents under dependable escort. And thus he showed kindness to the enemy. When at another time Alyattes (Aliatus) besieged Priene in the hope of starving it out, Bias concealed the city’s want and shortage of food by causing two well fed mules to be led out of the city so that they might, as if inadvertently, be captured by the enemy. When Alyattes saw the mules he concluded the city was abundantly supplied with necessities, sustenance and food. So he invited Bias to come to him in order to negotiate a peace. But Bias would not go to him, but asked him to send messengers into the city. He caused a heap of sand to be thrown up, and this he covered with grain. He called the pile to the attention of the messengers, who reported to Alyattes that great quantities of grain were still at hand in the city; and he, so believing, made peace and departed. And so, by the wisdom of Bias, the city was relieved. At another time, after a change of fortune, the enemy invaded the country. Those who felt so disposed fled, carrying their valuables with them. When Bias was asked why he was not taking his possessions, he replied, I carry all my wealth with me—for he carried it in his heart—not such wealth as is visible to the eye, but as is looked up in the mind. He said the best thing in life is a disposition which is inherently conscious of righteousness. And so a single thing may be dear to one. Bias flourished in the time of Zedekiah, the king, and he wrote many useful things. After his death, the people of Priene erected a temple to him.194
Cleobulus (Cleobolus), philosopher from Lindos, sixth of the Seven Sages, flourished in the time of Zedekiah the king of Judah, Cleobuline (Cleobola) his daughter, was a poetess of hidden questions, called riddles. And among others this was one of the riddles. There was a father who had twelve sons and to each of these was born thirty sons of unlike appearance. Some of these were white of countenance, and some were black; and although they are immortal, they are nevertheless destroyed and grow fewer. This is the year, father of the twelve months, etc. These are his teachings: Do well by a friend in order that he may become friendlier. Labor to make a friend of your enemies; for we should guard ourselves against the envy of a friend more than against the wiles of an enemy. The latter is open, while the former is a hidden evil; for the deceit which we do not expect is the more powerful. The more you are tempted to take a wife outside your own class, the less should you be inclined to do so; for if you take one of a higher class, you will have her family members as your master. Do not laugh at the unfortunate, for they will hate you for it. Do not be haughty in your good fortune, nor cast yourself into poverty; but submit bravely to the changes of fortune. He wrote three thousand riddles in verse form. And he died when he had completed seventy years of his life.195
Periander, the Corinthian philosopher, and seventh of the above mentioned sages, flourished in the days of Zedekiah king of Judah. He embodied many useful teachings in two thousand verses. His best known teachings are these: Those who wish to become tyrants196 must equip themselves with good will and not with weapons. Fortunate and unfortunate friends should be treated with equality. What you promise should be performed. Periander, moreover, was famous in the time of Hezekiah, king of Judah. Periander died at the age of eighty years.197
Anacharsis (Anatharsis), a philosopher, was highly esteemed as a brave and stern man in military affairs and experience. But in order to enhance his knowledge of Greek learning and customs he traveled to Athens and went to the house of Solon the Wise. He caused it to be announced that he had come to see him and to become his friend. Solon answered that in one’s own country friends were to be made at home. But Anacharsis replied, I am now in (my) country, and for that reason I am obligated to make friends. Surprised at his ready reply, Solon took him into his house and made of him a great friend and lover of wisdom. These are this statements: Being asked how one might become averse to wine, he answered, He who observes the vile conduct of drunkards will never become a lover of wine. He stated that mariners were removed from death only by the breadth of four fingers, for the hull of a ship is no thicker. Being asked what ships are the safest, he answered, those which peacefully rest on the land. Asked what was both good and evil in man, he answered, his tongue. He stated that a court is an exceptional place where persons deceive and over-reach one another. It is better to have but one friend who is worthy than to have a number of unworthy ones. Later on he returned to his home in Scythia, and undertook to educate his countrymen in the customs and usages of the Greeks in order to elevate his country. On this account and through envy his brother mortally wounded him during a chase. While dying he said, Through wisdom I was preserved in Greece, but through envy I pass away in my native land.198
Epimenides was a philosopher of Crete. While still young, his father sent him out to herd sheep. He climbed into a cave, and fell asleep and slept for 75 years. When he awoke, thinking he had slept for but a short while, he searched for his sheep. Not finding them, he went into the fields, but found everything changed and another in possession. In fear he returned to the people and went into his own house, telling who he was, until he saw his younger brother who was now old; and from him he now learned the whole truth about what had transpired. But as the Greeks regarded him as a man most loved by the gods, he was honorably received. By means of sacrifices he relieved the Athenians of a plague that had seized them. He also stated that money is a torment to the miser, a blessing to the humble, and death-blow to the treacherous. He lived 177 years, and wrote books of 5,000 verses on the creation and divine origin, and nine books of 1500 verses on the diverse nature of things. He also founded a temple to the gods at Athens, and flourished in the time of the very wise Solon.199
Simonides the poet, while sailing over the sea, reached the shore and found there an uncorrupted dead body. While burying it, the dead man warned him not to put to sea on the following day; and he heeded the warning. The rest who took passage were drowned by the waves and the turbulence of the sea. These are said to have been his teachings: Silence is safer than speech; for we have seen many come to grief by talking, but none by silence. Hope in the future is a cure for ills. Conscience does not distress the innocent in adversity; for it is a comfort to man to know that he has not deserved to suffer. An innocent man may be deserted by good fortune, but never by hope. Simonides was renowned in the days of Manasseh, the king of Judah.200
Tobit (Tobias), the Jew, a very holy prophet, was of the tribe and city of Naphtali. He was of a good disposition and distinguished for his spiritual grace. At this time he was carried into captivity by Shalmaneser the Assyrian king; but he was treated with kindness and persevered in divine service to the Lord. While at Nineveh he started to reflect on the commandments of the fathers, and visited the sick, gave alms to the poor, and comforted the distressed. He was seized with blindness, deprived of all his possessions, and became the poorest of mortals. But the Lord recognized his patience, and soon dispatched to him the angel Raphael, who restored his sight and his possessions tenfold. At the age of 102 years he prophesied the fall of Nineveh and the restoration of Jerusalem and the temple of the Lord, and gave up his ghost to the Lord. He was buried at Nineveh by his son Tobit (Tobias) and his grandsons.201
Amon (in the Year of the World 4551)202 did evil before the Lord, and was slain by his servants. He died in his own house, where he was murdered. And they buried him with his father.203
Josiah (Iosias) (in the Year of the World 4558)204, king of Judah, received the kingdom when he was eight years of age. He ruled very well, pursuing the idolaters, urging the priests to erect the temple, prevailing upon the people to observe the law, to fear God, and to celebrate in a commendable manner the Feast of the Passover. Finally, contrary to the will of the Lord, he went forth to give battle to the king of Egypt. In this battle he was seriously wounded and was taken back to Jerusalem, where he died. Upon his death Jeremiah wrote a song of lamentation; for Josiah was highly renowned for the glory and honor which he brought to the people of Judah, but which died with him. Josiah from childhood had sought the Lord, and persisted in his pursuit to the end. With devotion and zeal he walked in the laws of the Lord to such an extent that (as one may say) he had no equal among the kings of Judah.205
Jehoahaz (Joathas) (in the Year of the World 4589)206 was wicked before the Lord, for which reason God surrendered him into the hands of Pharaohnecho, the king, who took him into captivity in Egypt, and turned the kingdom over to his elder brother, Eliakim, and changed his name to Jehoiakim.207
Zeleucus (Zaleucus), a very righteous man, made many laws, and among others he ordained that he who commits the sin of adultery should be deprived of the sight of both his eyes. His son committed adultery, and he ordered both his eyes to be torn out. But the entire city pleaded for the son. And when he was finally moved to mercy by the persistent pleas of the people, yet, in order that his law might be complied with, he first caused one of his own eyes to be put out, and then one of his son’s; and thus he showed a wonderful sense of moderation and not unpraiseworthy equality, as a merciful father and just lawgiver. Therefore, learn, my fellow Christians, by this with what zeal you should observe the commandments of thy God. This pagan preferred to be punished himself rather than to have his son’s offense against the laws pass unpunished.208
Jehoiakim (Ieconias), also known as Eliakim (Eliachim), was also a son of Josiah, and was installed by Pharaoh as king, and was ordered to pay a tribute of one hundred pounds of silver. But he was wicked before the Lord, and therefore Nebuchadnezzar arose against him, and Jehoiakim became his servant for three years. But as he thereafter opposed Nebuchadnezzar, the latter again proceeded against him; and he slew him at Jerusalem and ordered his corpse to be thrown outside the wall.209
Jehoiachin (Joachim), also known as Jehoiakim (Jeconias) was a son of Jehoiakim (Ieconias); and he was wicked before the Lord. In consequence he soon ceased to reign. He was taken to Babylonia in fetters, and imprisoned among the Chaldaeans for thirty-seven years. His (Nebuchadnezzar’s) son released him from captivity after the death of his father. 210
Zedekiah (Sedechias) in the Year of the World 4600211 was the third son of Josiah and the last king of Judah and Jerusalem. He was evil and would not listen to the prophet Jeremiah. Therefore he and all of Judah were taken away to Babylon. His eyes were dug out, and his son was slain. Jeremiah and Ezekiel had predicted that he would be carried to the Babylonian king in fetters. And after he was made prisoner, the Chaldaeans strangled all the people. Those who escaped the sword were led away to serve the Chaldaeans.212
Thales (Tales) the Milesian, one of the Seven Sages, is considered famous. After the theologians and the poets, they were called ‘Wise’, that is, ‘Sages’. This Thales was the first who was able to predict an eclipse of the sun and moon (as Augustine says). The preceding folios make clear the accomplishments and words of these men.213
Seven SagesThe Lineage of Christ is here resumed from Folio LV recto (which there ended with Manasseh), as follows:
Zeleucus (Zaleucus), the Greek lawgiver.
"The Seven Sages, named Tales (Thales), Solon, Chilon, Periander, Cleobolus (Cleobulus), Bias and Pitacus (Pittacus)" are here honored with a composite woodcut—a sort of class-picture.
Marseilles (Massilia), the city beyond the mountains of Gaul (Gallia), was built in the first year of the reign of Zedekiah by the Phocaeans who were driven out from elsewhere and came here. In the time of Tarquin the king, there came in ships from Asia into the Tiber young men called Phocaeans, who made friends with the Romans, and then migrated into the land of Gaul, and amidst the Ligurians, the barbarous people of Gaul, built Marseilles. And by force of arms and war against the Gauls (or those whom they formerly overcame), the Phocaeans accomplished great things. The soil not being fertile, these Phocaeans sustained themselves more often on the water than on land by fishing and frequently by piracy, which was an honorable calling at that time. And so they entered the waters of the Rhone in Gaul and sailed to the hinterland beyond the sea, toward the west. And when they saw how pleasant this region was, they returned home and spread the news, and so caused many people to sail there. Furius and Peranus were leaders of this voyage. Marseilles was built on a promontory at the mouth of the Rhone, and in former times was highly regarded and of considerable size. It had a beautiful harbor and a well fortified castle. here also was built the very beautiful temple to Apollo of Delphi. But the Ligurians were envious of the city attacked it. Yet it constantly grew by conquests and through the defeat of its enemies and many new habitations were added. From them the Gauls learned the manner of refined living, husbandry, and the preservation of cities by walls. They abandoned their coarseness, and lived not by force of arms, but according to law. They established vineyards and planted oil trees, and became as renowned as if Gaul were changed into Greece, and not Greece into Gaul. To this city many noble Romans were sent to be educated. And although the city from time to time was invaded by many lords and tyrants, it never accepted a foreign law, nor suffered a single fall, except at the hands of the Catalauni (Cathelanis).215 To this city Lazarus, whom the Lord awakened from the dead, was sent from among the apostles as a bishop, and his relics have there been held in great reverence to this time. It is said that Mary Magdalene, a sister of Lazarus, was buried there. And there venerated men like Salvianus216 and Museus, the priests, taught divine matters. Genadius, also a priest, taught Greek and Latin, and like Jerome, wrote a book about illustrious men. There also lived Corvinus the orator, Victorinus the rhetorician, and many others.217
The city is represented by the same woodcut that did service for Trier at Folio XXIII recto; and for Padua at Folio XLIV verso.
Pherecydes (Pherecides) was at this time a celebrated master. He was a native of Syros (Syrus) and a disciple of Pittacus (Pitacus), the natural philosopher. He was a man of exceptional understanding and the first among the Greeks to write of nature and the gods. Also (as Cicero states in the book Tusculum Disputations)218 he was the first to recognize the immortality of the soul. He predicted many wonderful things, as Laertius219 states. Pliny says he was the first to reduce long dissertations to neat short ones. He was a master of Pythagoras, and wrote many letters to Thales the natural philosopher, receiving many from him in return.220
Pythagoras (Pytagoras), in these times and throughout the world, was the most celebrated natural philosopher. He was a Samian by birth, exceptionally well proportioned in body, and learned in the arts of music, weights and measures. He first taught the Greeks geometry. He was also versed in mathematics; nor did he neglect medicine. He believed in the transmigration of the soul. And although he had no equal in his time, he was ashamed to be called a wise man; but he called himself a philosopher, that is, a lover of wisdom. Although a Greek, he gave laws to the Italians. He made the regulation that those attending his school should not enter upon philosophical disputations for a period of five years. His books, it is said, were burned by the Athenians. Laertius thought much of his teachings, of which we here note this: In all respects we should sever illness from the body, ignorance from the soul, unchastity from the loins, civic disturbances from the home, and excess from all things.221
Sappho (Sapho) Crexea222, a poetess of divine understanding, flourished at this time. She invented the plectrum with which stringed instruments are played. She was married to a very rich man and bore him a son named Dydan. She had several women students—Anactoria of Miletus (Anagora Millesia), Gongyla of Colophon (Congilla Colophonia), etc., to whom she taught a number of lyric pieces. She wrote in these lyric forms: epigram, elegy, iambic, and monody. She was also a very noble poet.223
Ezekiel (Ezechiel) the prophet, holy man and priest of the Lord, was taken prisoner with Jehoiachin (Joachim) the king, and carried off to Babylonia. To the people of Judea he predicted woe and bondage. These predictions he sent from Babylonia to King Zedekiah at Jerusalem; but the king would not believe them. At the age of thirty years, being the fifth year of his imprisonment, he wrote his book of prophecies. To Dan and Gad, as well as others, he predicted that they would not return to Jerusalem. He was murdered at Babylon and buried in the grave of Shem, son of Noah.224
Daniel, a man of zeal, high priest and prophet, born of the tribe of Judah, was taken prisoner by Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Chaldaeans and, with Jehoiachin (Joachim), carried to Babylon, and nourished by his captor. At Jerusalem, in the ninth year of Zedekiah, when this young Daniel saved the innocent Susanna from death, he was inspired by the Holy Ghost and interpreted the first dream of the king of Chaldaea. For this the king appointed him collector. After Nebuchadnezzar died, and Daniel interpreted the handwriting on the wall for his son Belshazzar (Balthasar)225 and predicted the course of his life, he was carried about in the city with great honor. Prompted by envy, Darius, son of Astyages, cast him into the lions’ den; but he was released to enjoy even greater honors. He wrote his book of prophecies, divided into ten parts, according to the ten visions which he saw—three under Nebuchadnezzar, three under his son Belshazzar, and the seventh and eighth under Darius, and the last two in the reign of Cyrus. He was buried in the city of Ebethenis in the country of Persia (Media).226
In the order named, these appear in vertical order on the left of the page:
Bologna (Bononia), an ancient city of the Romans, was at first called Felsina, a name given it by the Etruscans; but thereafter, the Boii, a people of Gaul, called it Bononia. It was the first city of the Etruscans beyond the Apennines. Later it became the capital city of the Boii, after whom it was called Bononia. Livy states that the Romans secured possession of the city, taking it from the Boii, this being the territory that formerly belonged to the Etruscans. After the latter were driven out, the Romans sent 3,000 men there, and with their help the population was increased and the city expanded to such an extent that by the time of Augustus and under other emperors it became one of the three richest cities of Italy on the upper sea. Suetonius states that Octavian granted the Bolognans a charter incorporating their territory into that of Italy out of consideration for the tact that they were at one time of the Antonian family. Suetonius also writes that the emperor Nero favored the Bolognans against the Romans. In the Year of Salvation 840, in the time of Pope Sergius (formerly called the Pig’s Snout), when Emperor Lothair (Lotharius) sent his son Louis (Ludivicum) with a large force against Rome, the Bolognans opposed him and inflicted much mischief and damage, compelling Louis to retreat with his forces. And he overstepped the bounds of reason in wreaking vengeance upon the Bolognans, devastating their lands and slaying innocent people he found on the streets of the city and in the villages; and he besieged and leveled the cities that he conquered. Thereafter, in the Year of the Lord 1271, Bologna was so mighty that it barred the Venetians from free use of the Adriatic, and conducted a three years’ war. After the conflict ceased, internal strife arose among the Bolognans, resulting in the devastation of the city, and making it necessary to bring it under the control of the Roman Church. The city was enclosed within its present walls by the Romans; and it increased in riches; and as it brings forth an abundance of grain, wine, and other necessities of life, the city is called the Fat Bologna.227 From the time of Theodosius to the present its celebrated University has maintained its great renown; for it is called the Mother of the Arts; and here are taught the laws, canon and civil, the liberal arts, and sacred literature. Here also flourished many holy and highly learned men, in particular the holy Petronius, the bishop, who wrote the lives of the ancient fathers. Guido, the archdeacon, John Andreas and John Calderinus, celebrated jurists who left many commendable writings.228
Merodach was the first king of Babylonia. He fled from the principality of Assyria. He and the king of Media were not obedient to Esarhaddon (Assaradon)229 in anything. Therefore the empire of the Assyrians declined, while the kings of Babylonia began to wax mighty. He also sent Hezekiah (Ezechie) many presents.230
The game of chess231 was devised by Xerxes (Xerses), the pagan philosopher, for the beguilement of Evilmerodach, the tyrant, who generally slew his teachers and masters, and who by the fascination of this game was drawn away from his tyranny.232
Nebuchadnezzar (Nabuchodonosor) was a very successful warrior, for he was scourge of God to punish the sins of the people. He conquered the Assyrian Empire that was destroyed by the Medes, and there he was himself a king. Also for seven months thereafter he lived among the wild animals. After seven years of penitence and the prayers of Daniel, he was converted into his former state. He carried on many wars with those on the border, particularly with the Egyptians whom he defeated to the limits of the land of Judea. He brought Syria under his power. He murdered Jehoiakim (Joachim), and carried his successors together with the temple treasures to Babylonia. Of Zedekiah (Sedechias), an uncle of Jehoiachin, he made a king of Babylonia. At the age of forty he was buried at Babylonia, leaving his kingdom to his son as his heir.233
Byzantium (Bisantium), thus called by the Greeks, is a city by the sea in Thrace, and was built by the Lacedaemonians, who consulted Apollo, the pagan god, as to its location. He answered that they were to build it "opposite the blind," stating that Megara, near Chalcedon, was built by the blind. For, although they sailed to Thrace and saw the region where Byzantium was built, as Strabo states,234 they passed up this rich country and selected a poorer one. But according to Justinus and Eusebius the city was begun in the Year before the Coming of Christ 663, near the region of the Chalcedonians, in Greece, close by the fertile and fortified city of Pausanias, king of Sparta. Although small, it was enlarged by Constantine the Great, and called Constantinople. We will say more in praise of it in his time.235
Here begins the Line of Babylonian Kings:
Xerxes (Xerses), the philosopher, in cap and gown, with his chessmen and chessboard, as evidence of his invention.
Byzantium (Bisantium), the city. This folio repeats the one used for Memphis/Cairo at Folio XXII recto.
Nebuchadnezzar(Nabuchodonosor) made Mattaniah (Mathanias), the uncle of Jeconiah (Joachim), king at Jerusalem, and by oath bound him to pay an annual tribute; and he changed his name to Zedekiah (Sedechias). He (Zedekiah) began to reign at the age of twenty-one years, and he reigned 11 years at Jerusalem. Thereafter he did evil in the sight of the Lord. He was arrogant and decided to make an alliance with the king of Egypt; nor did he keep his oath. The false prophets deceived him, saying, The Babylonians would certainly be driven out by the Egyptians. Jeremiah advised him to place his faith in God and not in humanity. In the ninth year of his reign, on the advice of the Egyptians, he decided not to pay the promised tribute, but to liberate himself and to ignore his oath, in consequence Nebuchadnezzar besieged him with a great number of people, and by starvation sought to compel him to pay the tribute. The city was opened at midnight, and Zedekiah and his relatives escaped, and went on their way to the wilderness. The mercenaries pursued him and captured him in the evening. And they brought him before the king at Riblah (Reblata). And the king punished him for his ingratitude, for although he had invested him with the kingdom, he had become perfidious; and he caused his eyes to be put out, and had him sent to Babylon in chains. He also contrived to have him, together with Jehozadek (Josedech)236 and all his relatives, put to death. And he carried away from Jerusalem to Babylon a great number of people as prisoners. He caused the city and the temple to be destroyed and burned.237 He also conquered the empire of Assyria, which the Medes had destroyed. And so Babylonia became the sovereign of all these empires, and the kingdom of the Hebrews passed out as that of the Chaldees sprang up. Chaldaea, the kingdom in Asia, adjoined Arabia, a poor flat country, lacking water. In it (Chaldaea) was Babylon the capital city; and in the time of Zedekiah, after Astyages the eighth and last king of Media had reigned 38 years, the empire of the Medes declined.
Jerusalem, the noblest and oldest city, was destroyed a number of times: Firstly by the King of Babylon when Nebuchadnezzar, King of Chaldaea in the time of Zedekiah, invaded the land of Judah with a great and powerful army, and afflicted the cities and besieged Jerusalem. Thereafter he marched against Pharaoh the King of Egypt; and when he had forced him to flight he sent Nebuzar-adan (Nabuzardo)238, one of the generals of his army, to besiege Jerusalem. He was encamped there for eight months when they surrendered themselves and their city to the Chaldaeans. They slew the king, leveled the towers and walls, burned the Temple, and seized the temple treasures. The Temple remained desolate for seventy years. The captivity did not end until the time of Cyrus. The Temple was not rebuilt until the time of Darius, the King of Persia and Media. Jerusalem was destroyed a second time by Asobeus, King of Egypt. What the land of Judea suffered at the hands of the Medes, Egyptians, and Macedonians, I will not here relate. The city was destroyed a third time by that most cruel tyrant, Antiochus Epiphanes, who took the city through the treachery of Menelaus, and through merciless men plundered the Holy City; gave the Jews pork to eat, forced them to forego their own laws, and to worship the Olympian Jove. On the fourth occasion it was destroyed by Pompey, who conquered the entire land of Judea, making it and Jerusalem tributary. Strabo relates that Pompey on a certain sabbath of the Jews, when they withheld themselves from all labor, filled up the moats, set up the ladders, and conquered the city. For a fifth time the cities of Judea, and particularly Jerusalem, were attacked, and this time by Gabinius, Scaurus, and Varus; and Herod the Great239 and Sosius240 conquered it, and possessed it as a march. On the sixth occasion it was taken by Vespasian241 on the eighth day of the month of September, in the second year of his reign, through his son Titus, who razed it to the ground and destroyed the temple. They leveled the walls and filled the moats. This conquest the Romans considered a feat of great importance, and Titus, leader of the hosts, and afterwards governor of the realm, when he passed over the walls was himself surprised, and
SIZE 8¾" X 5½"
This woodcut portrays one of the incidents in the fall of Jerusalem as recorded in the accompanying text, based on the 24th and 25th chapters of II Kings.
We are in the plains of Jericho in the eleventh year of the reign of Zedekiah, whose army has been defeated and dispersed by the besiegers. From the right the Babylonian hosts—a horse and armed cap-a-pie in stout European armor of the Middle Ages, and equipped with implements of war of the same period—proudly enter the picture. At their head is a distinguished personage in Oriental turban, apparently intended for Nebuchadnezzar, although this potentate was at Riblah at this time and not on the plans of Jericho. Proceeding before them in simple raiment but wearing his crown, is Zedekiah. His hands are bound behind his back by a cord, and he is being urged along by a rather aggressive looking infantryman who has strapped to his back a peculiar shield in the shape of a human face. Strangely enough, his trusty sword is in its scabbard at his side, while he urges on Zedekiah and the multitude with a stick.
Zedekiah is proceeding forward as best he can, with a peculiar dance step. He is already blindfolded, no doubt the artist’s way of indicating that his eyes have already been put out, although this did not occur until he was brought before the great Babylonian king at Riblah. Crowded about the unfortunate king of Judah are his people, men, women and children, all in distress and fear. One of their numbers, in a cloak or mantle, stands immediately before the blinded king, making a gesture as if speaking to him. Who this may be, or what he may be saying, we do not know.
The background represents a desolate undulating plain.
acknowledged the result rather as a divine favor than the work of human strength. In the destruction of the city, murder, hunger and mortal suffering occurred, and if you would know the details, you should read Josephus242 who wrote, not according to hearsay, but recorded actual facts to which he and others were witnesses. When Titus, together with his father Vespasian, entered the city, he caused Simon, who was the cause of the destruction, to be dragged through the streets with ropes in his triumphal train, and his body bruised; and thereafter he slew him. Vespasian built a temple of peace, and caused to be deposited in it the holy treasures of the Jews, such as the tablets of the laws, and other things. The city was at that time the abode of thieves and murderers; and so it continued until the time of Hadrian. For fifty years it remained desolate. Thereafter Hadrian, the emperor, rebuilt it and restored its walls; and he called it Aelia Capitolina (Helyam), after himself. As St. Jerome wrote to Paulinus, the worship of Jove was practiced from the time of Hadrian to that of Constantine, for 180 years; and on the Mount of the Cross a column was erected to Venus, the pagan goddess, and worshipped by the pagans. Thereby they meant to dishonor the Holy City, and to uproot belief in our origin and in the Cross. At various times our own princes have held the city. Charlemagne captured it with great labor, but lost it again. Godfrey (Gothefridus) recaptured it; and so that it might be retained in possession, Emperor Conrad and King Louis (Ludovicus) of France marched into Asia. But as our princes afterward became indifferent, neither Jerusalem nor Antioch remained in our power. O how lamentable and shameful it is that the Saracens, enemies of the Cross, should hold the Temple of Solomon in which the Lord often preached; Bethlehem, in which He was born; Calvary, where He was crucified, and the grave in which He slept! Although the Christians did not choose to think of this, they should never forget it. Look at the city of the Living God; the office of our redemption; the city which God glorified with miracles and sanctified with his blood; and in which the bloom of our origin first appeared—all now in the power of the hordes of Mohammed and subject to a sinful people.243
Size 10" X 20½"
This large and unusual woodcut (Destruccio Iherosolime), together with the accompanying text, concludes the fourth age of the world. It covers the greater part of Folio LXIII verso and LXIIII recto and consists of two blocks. As one casually glances at this panorama of the Holy City one does not realize that a catastrophe is at hand. The city is pictured in a very hilly terrain and is itself located on a rather rotund elevation. It is surrounded by a wall that does not appear to have been seriously damaged, except in the lower right hand corner of the woodcut. Only two entrance gates are shown—Porta Aurea and Porta Gregis—neither of which have been destroyed; in fact, the outskirts of the city and the surrounding wall give no evidence of a siege, being entirely deserted.
We should feel grateful, in view of past performances on the part of the woodcutters, that this has not been depicted as a medieval European city; for with its abundance of muezzin towers and mosques, occasionally surmounted by a crescent, its squat and square abodes and dearth of vegetation, we are truly reminded of a Middle Eastern city.
Let us enter at the Porta Gregis. Immediately on our right, is the house of St. Anne (Dom(us) S. Ane), and diagonally across the street the domicile of Pilate (Dom(us) Pilatum). We proceed northward, and where the highway broadens into a plaza we see the house of Herod (Dom(us) Herod), also on our right. So far all have been squat, square structures with flat roofs. But as we go on we come to an elaborate building resembling a mosque. It has a large open forecourt and is flanked by a minaret on one side, a nondescript tower on the other. It is the uppermost structure in the picture, and bears the inscription "Calvarie."
Had we veered to the left from the plaza before the House of Herod, we should have passed a structure on our right inscribed with the words "Dom(us) Divitis" (?)—and changing our course to the north, we would have entered the "Porta vet(us)" leading into a sepulcher or tomb resembling an ink bottle in form, and whose inscription is doubtful. From the rear of this tomb a rather steep road leads upward and apparently down behind the city. As we ascend we meet two armed warriors on horseback, and another on foot. They have apparently been up to mischief for on either side of the road two huge square towers have been broken off at their bases, and toppled over in opposite directions. Just before we caught up with the first of these horsemen, we passed (on our left) the "Atria Soldanis,"—probably the atrium or forecourt to the Sultan’s Palace.
Had we here turned westward (instead of proceeding to the north), and made our way down the hill to the left, we should have encountered the House of Caiaphas, the Temple of Mary (Teplu(m) Marie), another house of Anne, or the house of another Anne, as the case may be (Dom(us) Ane), and another structure of doubtful inscription.
So far our journey has been rather uneventful except for some of the disturbed masonry. But suddenly it becomes apparent that the grotesque structure, center left, entitled, "Teplu(m) Salomo(n)is," or "Temple of Solomon" is ablaze. In the left forecourt are two Turks engaged in friendly conversation, and in the forecourt to the right three or four persons promenade about as though they neither saw the flames, felt the heat, nor smelled the smoke of the conflagration that is engulfing the Temple.
To the extreme right of the panorama the way leads to Bethlehem, the direction being inscribed on a gabled house nestling between three towers. At the left of the city a road leads to an unnamed castle.
Mr. Bullen, in his observations on the Chronicle, remarks that the interest of this woodcut lies solely in its anachronisms, and to be sure there are such to the most superficial student of the architecture of the various periods and countries. Note for instance the Gothic spires that have been affixed to the lower stories of the two minarets on the left. But the greatest anachronism occurs at the extreme left, on the Mount of Satan (Muasatana), an elongated sugar-loaf affair, upon the summit of which appear two sketchy figures—one in a long robe and halo, the other in the nude and horned, the horns resembling the antennae of an insect. We are at once reminded Luke 4:5-9:
And the devil taking him up into a high mountain, showed him all the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time. And the devil said to him, All this power will I give you, and the glory of them; for that is delivered to me; and to whomsoever I will I give it. If you therefore will worship me, all will be yours. And Jesus answered and said to him, Get behind me, Satan: for it is written, You shall worship the Lord your God, and him only shall you serve. And he brought him to Jerusalem, and set him on a pinnacle of the temple, and said unto him, If you are the Son of God, cast yourself down from here,….
(See also Matthew 4:1-11)
It is apparent from the text of Luke, as well as that of Matthew, that these gospels narrate that Satan twice tempted Jesus by this means, once taking him on a high mountain to show him the kingdom of the world, and again bringing him to Jerusalem and setting him on a pinnacle of the temple. The eminence upon which the figures stand is a pinnacle, but not the pinnacle of a temple, while on the other hand the ascending roadway, and the doors opening into the pinnacle contradict the theory of its being a natural formation. The fact remains, however, that we are at Jerusalem and that Satan is showing the Jesus the city. It is uncertain whether at this particular time Satan is offering Jesus "all the kingdoms of the world" if Jesus will worship him, or whether he is tempting him to cast himself down from the pinnacle in order to prove that he will be saved by God.
According to the chronicler, Jerusalem was destroyed five times. And, according to other writers, many more. Which of these destructions the artist had in mind is uncertain but the nearest one to the time of Jesus is that which occurred in 70 CE, when the city was besieged by Titus and was totally razed to the ground.
And David lamented with this lamentation over Saul and over Jonathan his son: The beauty of Israel has been slain upon your high places: how are the mighty fallen! Tell it not in Gath, publish it not in the streets of Askelon; lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice, lest the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph. You mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew, neither let there be rain upon you, nor fields of offerings; for there the shield of the mighty is vilely cast away, the shield of Saul, as though he had not been anointed with oil. From the blood of the slain, from the fat of the mighty, the bow of Jonathan turned not back, and the sword of Saul returned not empty. You daughters of Israel, weep over Saul, who clothed you in scarlet, with other delights, who put on ornaments of gold upon your apparel. How are the mighty fallen in the midst of the battle! O Jonathan, you were slain in your high places. I am distressed for you, my brother Jonathan: very pleasant have you been to me: your love to me was wonderful, passing the love of women. How are the mighty fallen, and the weapons of war perished!⏎
I Kings 3:16-28. Added to the end of this paragraph in the German edition of the Chronicle is the following passage:
And although in no other single individual before him were found such clear wisdom, such high degree of pleasure, such great honor, such riches, and such secret communion with God, yet in his later years Solomon marred and perverted these qualities by his love of women and his idolatrous practices.
Which, in turn, is derived from 1 Kings 11:1-8:
But Solomon loved many strange women, together with the daughter of Pharaoh, women of the Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Zidonians, and Hittites; of the nations concerning which the Lord said to the children of Israel, you shall not go in to them, neither shall they come in to you: for surely they will turn away your heart after their gods: Solomon clung to these in love. And he had seven hundred wives, princesses, and three hundred concubines: and his wives turned away his heart. For it came to pass when Solomon was old, that his wives turned away his heart after other gods: and his heart was not perfect with the Lord his God, as was the heart of David, his father. . . . And Solomon did evil in the sight of the Lord, and went not fully after the Lord, as did David, his father. Then did Solomon build a high place for Chemosh, the abomination of Moab, in the hill that is before Jerusalem, and for Molech, the abomination of the children of Ammon. And likewise did he for all his strange wives, which burnt incense and sacrificed to their gods.
⏎
The Bible states that in the later years of his reign Solomon did much to displease God; for he had become a despot, and idolater and a lover of many strange women. And God stirred up many adversaries against him and otherwise troubled his closing years. (I Kings 11:1-25) Among these adversaries was one Jeroboam, who raised his hand against the king (I Kings 11:26-32):
And it came to pass at that time when Jeroboam went to Jerusalem, that the prophet Ahijah the Shilomite found him in the way; and he had clad himself with a new garment; and the two of them were alone in the field: And Ahijah caught the new garment that was on him, and rent it in twelve pieces: And he said to Jeroboam, Take ten pieces: for thus says the Lord, the God of Israel, Behold I will rend the kingdom out of the hand of Solomon, and will give ten tribes to you: (But he shall have one tribe for my servant David’s sake, and for Jerusalem’s sake, the city which I have chosen out of all the tribes of Israel.
Hearing of Abijah’s prophecy, Solomon saw in Jeroboam, the youthful Ephraimite, an insubordinate spirit, and a usurper of his throne. The relation was strikingly similar to that of Saul and David, except that David did not lift his hand against the king. Realizing his position, Jeroboam fled to Shishak, the kid of Egypt; and in that country he remained until Solomon’s death. (I Kings 11:40) When Solomon died, after a reign of forty years, his son Rehoboam went to Shechem, a central meeting place for the northern tribes, to make himself king. In the meantime, Jeroboam in Egypt, heard of Solomon’s death and the oppressed people called him forth as a leader. And he and the people met Rehoboam at Shechem, demanding relief against the yoke that his father had imposed upon them. But Rehoboam not only ignored their plea, but answered them roughly, promising that he would add to their yoke, and where his father had chastised them with whips, he would chastise them with scorpions. (I Kings 12:1-15) And so the ten tribes rebelled and chose Jeroboam king over all Israel. Rehoboam came to Jerusalem and prepared for war against Jeroboam and vainly attempted to subdue the rebellion. Jeroboam enlarged and fortified Shechem for a royal residence. He feared the return of the house of David to power, and calculating that should the people go up to do sacrifice in the house of the Lord at Jerusalem, they would reaffirm their allegiance to Rehoboam, and kill him. So he took counsel and made two calves of gold, and he said to the people, It is too much for you to go up to Jerusalem: behold your gods, O Israel, which brought you up out of the land of Egypt. And he set up the one in Dan in the northern part of the kingdom, and the other at Bethel (not Nephtali) in the southern, thus catering to the convenience of the people. And he ordained a feast and offered up sacrifices to these new gods at both places. (I Kings 12:20-33)
⏎Shemaiah was one of the prophets of the age, who, according to the Bible, wielded a great moral power over the king and nation (I Kings 12:22-24):
The word of God came to Shemaiah, the man of God, saying, Speak to Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, king of Judah, and to all the house of Judah and Benjamin, and to the remnant of the people, saying, You shall not go up and fight against your brothers the children of Israel; return every man to his house; for this thing is from me. They listened therefore to the word of the Lord and returned to depart, according to the word of the Lord.
The prophet’s words on this occasion, though doubtless much against the royal will, awed the king into submission. He appeared again in the time of Shishak’s invasion, and his ministry was instrumental in averting the possible consequences of that invasion—the destruction of Jerusalem. (II Chron. 12:5-7) He also composed a history of Rehoboam’s reign. (II Chron. 12:15)
⏎The German edition of the Chronicle replaces this paragraph with the following sentence: "The successors of Silvius Aeneas, son of the third king of Latium, were called Silvius after him."
All succeeding kings of Alba bore the name Silvius. These mythical kings according to Livy, Ovid and Dionysius, were as follows:
| LIVY | OVID | DIONYSIUS | |
| 1. | Aeneas | Aeneas | Aeneas |
| 2. | Ascanius | Ascanius | Ascanius |
| 3. | Silvius | Silvius | Silvius |
| 4. | Aeneas Silvius | Aeneas Silvius | |
| 5. | Latinus Silvius | Latinus | Latinus Silvius |
| 6. | Alba | Alba | Alba |
| 7. | Atys | Epytus | Capetus |
| 8. | Capys | Capys | Capys Silvius |
| 9. | Capetus | Capetus | Capetus |
| 10. | Tiberinus | Tiberinus | Tiberinus |
| 11. | Agrippa | Remulus | Agrippa |
| 12. | Romulus Silvius | Acrota | Alladius |
| 13. | Aventinus | Aventinus | Aventinus |
| 14. | Proca | Palatinus | Procas |
| 15. | Amulius | Amulius | Amulius |
Aeneas, son of said Silvius Postumus, reigned 31 years, and left an heir, Latinus, and died.30
⏎And Elijah, the Tishbite, who was of the inhabitants of Gilead, said to Ahab, As the Lord God of Israel lives, before whom I stand; there shall not be dew or rain these years, but according to my word. And the word of the Lord came to him, saying, Go from here and turn yourself eastward, and hide yourself by the brook Cherith, that is before Jordan; and I have commanded the ravens to feed you there. . . . And the ravens brought him bread and meat in the morning, and bread and meat in the evening; and he drank of the brook. And it came to pass after a while that the brook dried up; because there was no rain in the land. . . . And he rose and went to Zarephath. And when he came to the gate of the city, behold, a widow woman was there gathering sticks; and he called to her, and said, Fetch me, I pray you, a little water in a vessel that I may drink. . . Bring me, I pray you, a morsel of bread in your hand. And she said, As the Lord your God lives, I have not a cake, but a handful of meal in a barrel, and a little oil in a cruse; and behold I am gathering two sticks that I may go in and dress it for me and my son, that we may eat it, and die. And Elijah said to her, Fear not; go and do as you have said: but make me a little cake from it first, and bring it to me; and after make for yourself and for your son. For thus says the Lord God of Israel, the barrel of meal shall not waste, neither shall the cruse of oil fail, until the day that the Lord sends rain upon the earth. . . And it came to pass after these things that the son of the woman, the mistress of the house, fell sick; and his sickness was so bad that there was no breath left in him. . . And the Lord heard the voice of Elijah; and the soul of the child came into him again, and he revived.⏎
And it came to pass that when the Lord would take up Elijah into heaven by a whirlwind that Elijah went with Elisha from Gilgal. . . . and they both stood by the Jordan. And Elijah took his mantle and wrapped it together, and struck the waters, and they were divided here and there, so that they went over on dry ground. And it came to pass when they were gone over, that Elijah said to Elisha, Ask what I shall do for you. And Elisha said, I pray you, let a double portion of your spirit be upon me. . . And it came to pass, as they still went on, and talked, that, behold, there appeared a chariot of fire, and horses of fire, and parted them both asunder; and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven. And Elisha saw it, and he cried, My father, my father, the chariot of Israel, and its horsemen. And he saw him no more: and he took hold of his own clothes, and rent them in two pieces. He took up also the mantle of Elijah that fell from him, and went back, and stood by the bank of the Jordan. And he took the mantle of Elijah that fell from him, and struck the waters, and said Where is the Lord God of Elijah? And when he also had struck the waters, they parted here and there: And Elisha went over.⏎
And when Jehu was come to Jezreel, Jezebel heard of it; and she painted her face, and placed a headdress on her head, and looked out of a window. And as Jehu entered in at the gate, she said, Had Zimri peace, who slew his master? And he lifted up his face to the window, and said, Who is on my side? Who? And there looked out to him two or three eunuchs. And he said, Throw her down. So they threw her down: and some of her blood was sprinkled on the wall, and on the horses; and he trod her under foot. And when he came in, he ate and drank, and said, Go, see now this cursed woman, and bury her: for she is a king’s daughter. And they went to bury her: but they found no more of her than the skull, and the feet, and the palms of her hands. For that reason they returned and told him. And he said, This is the word of the Lord, which he spoke by his servant Elijah the Tishbite, saying, In the portion of Jezreel shall dogs eat the flesh of Jezebel: And the carcass of Jezebel shall be as dung upon the face of the field in the portion of Jezreel; so that they shall not say, This is Jezebel.⏎
Micaiah, or Micah, the son of Imlah, is called by Ahab, at the request of his ally, Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to prophesy the result of a projected expedition against the Syrians, and he foretells the disaster which will befall them if they go up to Ramothgilead to battle. But Ahab, king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, nevertheless gave battle there.
And a certain man drew a bow on a whim, and struck the king of Israel between the joints of the harness: and so he said to the driver of his chariot, Turn your hand, and carry me out of the battle; for I am wounded. And the battle increased that day: and the king remained in his chariot against the Syrians, and died in the evening; and the blood ran out of the wound into the midst of the chariot. . . So the king died, and was brought to Samaria; and they buried the king in Samaria. And one washed the chariot in the pool of Samaria; and the dogs licked up his blood; and they washed his armor; according to the word of the Lord which he spoke.
I Kings 22:34-38
⏎And the men of the city said to Elisha, Look, the situation of this city is pleasant, as my lord sees; but the water is not, and the ground barren. And he said, Bring me a new jar and put salt in it. And they brought it to him. And he went forth to the spring of the waters, and cast the salt in it, and said, Thus says the Lord, I have healed these waters; there shall not be from this point on any more death or barren land. So the waters were healed to this day, according to the saying of Elisha which he spoke. And he went up from there to Bethel: and as he was going up by the way, there came forth little children out of the city, and mocked him, and said to him, Go up, you bald head; go up, you bald head. And he turned back, and looked on them, and cursed them in the name of the Lord. And there came forth two she bears out of the wood who killed forty-two children of them.⏎
And Ben-hadad the king of Syria gathered all his hosts together; and there were thirty and two kings with him, and horses, and chariots: and he went up and besieged Samaria, and warred against it. And he sent messengers to Ahab king of Israel into the city, and said to him. . . Your silver and your gold is mine; your wives also and your children, even the goodliest, are mine. And the king of Israel answered and said. My lord, O king, according to your saying, I am yours, and all that I have. And the messengers came again and said. . . I will send my servants to you tomorrow about this time, and they shall search your house, and the houses of your servants; and it shall be, that whatever is pleasant in yours eyes, they shall put it in their hand and take it away. Then the king of Israel called all the elders of the land. . . And all the elders and all the people said to him, Listen not to him, nor consent. For this reason he said to the messengers of Ben-hadad, Tell my lord the king, All that you did send for to your servant at the first I will do: but this thing I may not do. And the messengers departed. . . And Ben-hadad sent to him and said, The gods do so to me, and more also, if the dust of Samaria shall suffice for handfuls for all the people that follow me. And the king of Israel answered and said, Tell him, Let not him that puts on his harness boast that he himself is taking it off. And it came to pass, when Ben-hadad heard this message, as he was drinking, he and the kings in the pavilions that he said to his servants, Set yourselves in array. And they set themselves in array against the city. And behold there came a prophet to Ahab, king of Israel. . . Then he (Ahab) numbered the young men of the princess of the provinces, and they were two hundred and thirty-two: and after them he numbered all the people, even all the children of Israel, being seven thousand. . . And they (the Israelites) slew every one his man; and the Syrians fled; and Israel pursued them: And Ben-hadad the king of Syria escaped on his horse with the horsemen. . . . And the prophet came to the king of Israel, and said to him, Go strengthen yourself, and mark and see what you do; for at the return of the year the king of Syria will come up against you. And the servants of the king of Syria said to him (their king), their gods are gods of the hills; therefore, they were stronger than we; but let us fight against them in the plain, and surely we shall be stronger than they. . . And it came to pass at the return of the year that Ben-hadad numbered the Syrians, and went up to Aphek, to fight against Israel. . . . And they pitched one over against the other for seven days . . . and the children of Israel slew of the Syrians a hundred thousand footmen in one day. But the rest fled to Aphek, into the city; and there a wall fell upon twenty and seven thousand of the men that were left. And Ben-hadad fled, and came into the city, into an inner chamber. And his servants said to him . . . let us, I pray you, put sackcloth on our loins and ropes upon our heads and go forth to the king of Israel: perhaps he will save your life. So they girded sackcloth on their loins, and put ropes on their heads, and came to the king of Israel and said, Your servant Ben-hadad says, I pray you let me live. . . .Then he (Ahab) said, Go, bring him. Then Ben-hadad came forth to him; and he caused him to come up into the chariot. And Ben-hadad said to him, The cities, which my father took from your father, I will restore, etc. Then said Ahab, I will send you away with this covenant. So he made a covenant with him, and sent him away. . . . So the prophet waited for the king (Ahab) by the way, and disguised himself with ashes upon his face. And as the king passed by, he cried to the king; and he said, Your servant went out into the midst of the battle; and, behold, a man turned aside, and brought a man to me, and said, Keep this man; if by any means he be missing, then shall your life be for his, or else you shall pay a talent of silver. And as your servant was busy here and there, he was gone. And the king of Israel said to him, So shall your judgment be; yourself have decided it. And he hastened, and took the ashes away from his face; and the king of Israel discerned him that he was of the prophets. And he said to him, Thus says the Lord, because you have let go out of your hand a man whom I appointed to utter destruction, therefore your life shall go for his life, and your people for his people.⏎
Cf. II Kings 13:1-3:
In the three and twentieth year of Joash, the son of Ahaziah king of Judah, Jehoahaz, the son of Jehu, began to reign over Israel in Samaria, and reigned seventeen years. And he did that which was evil in the sight of the Lord, and followed the sons of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, which made Israel to sin; and he did not depart from there. And the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel, and he delivered them into the hands of Hazael, king of Syria, and into the hands of Ben-hadad, the son of Hazael, all their days."
The reign of Jehoahaz was disastrous to Israel. The country was pillaged by the Syrians. The army was reduced to but a shadow. When his troubles multiplied, Jehoahaz sought the Lord whom he had forsaken, and the Lord ultimately raised up a deliverer in the person of Jehoash, or Joash, his son.
⏎Ahaz succeeded his father Jotham as the eleventh king of Judah. He worshipped other gods, and even sacrificed his children to the gods. This course brought upon him and his kingdom severe judgments. God made them flee before their enemies. Their allies often proved unfaithful. Early in his reign, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin, king of Syria, who just at the close of Jotham’s reign had confederated for the destruction of Judah, invaded the kingdom with a powerful army and laid siege to Jerusalem. The allies, though defeated at Jerusalem, captured Elath, wasted Judah, and carried 200,000 into captivity. Ahaz in his extremity made a league with Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, who freed him from his enemies, but at the cost of the Judaic kingdom, which became tributary, and Ahaz sent him all the treasures of the temple and palace, and appeared before him in Damascus as a vassal. His only permanent service to his people was the introduction of the sun dial, which was probably connected with the Assyrian astrology and necromancy.
This paragraph and the next have their order switched in the German edition of the Chronicle.
⏎And the spirit of God came upon Zechariah the son of Jehoida the priest, who stood above the people, and said to them, Thus says God, Why transgress the commandments of the Lord, so that you cannot prosper? Because you have forsaken the Lord, he has also forsaken you. And they conspired against him, and stoned him with stones at the commandment of the king in the court of the house of the Lord. Thus Joash the king remembered not the kindness which Jehoiada his father had done to him, but slew his son. And when he died, he said, The Lord look upon it, and require it.⏎
Naaman was a distinguished Syrian general, but a leper. Hearing through a captive Jewish girl who waited on his wife of the fame of the prophet Elisha, he set out on a journey to Israel with letters from his sovereign to the king of Israel. When the latter read them he was filled with apprehension, probably fearing that the king of Syria intended to find a pretext for a quarrel in his ability to cure his general. In this predicament, Elisha dispatched word to the king to give up his fears, and to send the distinguished stranger to him. Naaman received from Elisha’s messenger the prescription to bathe seven times in the Jordan. The leper at first disdained the remedy. It was too simple, and attributed to the Jordan a virtue that he knew Abana and Pharpar, rivers of his own land, did not possess. His retinue wisely advised him not to spurn the remedy. Following their counsel, he bathed seven times in the Jordan and his "flesh became again like the flesh of a child." In gratitude Naaman offered the prophet a present, but he would not take it. Subsequently Gehazi, by uttering a falsehood, secured it, but in turn received Naaman’s leprosy.
This paragraph on Naaman and the one that follows it on Amulius are switched in the German edition of the Chronicle—most probably to place the text about Naaman directly above the woodcut illustrating the text.
⏎Here Hartman Schedel (the author/compiler of the Chronicle) paraphrases ever so slightly—but also somewhat awkwardly—Justin’s Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV (7.6-12):
6 Sed Macedonibus adsidua certamina cum Thracibus et Illyriis fuere quorum armis, ueluti cotidiano exercitio, indurati, gloria bellicae laudis finitimos terrebant. 7 Igitur Illyrii infantiam regis pupilli contemnentes, bello Macedonas adgrediuntur. 8 Qui, proelio pulsi, rege suo in cunis prolato et pone aciem posito, acrius certamen repetiuere, 9 tamquam ideo uicti antea fuissent, quod bellantibus sibi regis sui auspicia defuissent, 10 futuri uel propterea uictores, quod ex superstitione animum uincendi ceperant; 11 simul et miseratio eos infantis tenebat, quem, si uicti forent, captiuum de rege facturi uidebantur. 12 Conserto itaque proelio, magna caede Illyrios fudere, ostenderuntque hostibus suis priore bello regem Macedonibus, non uirtutem defuisse.
The Macedonians had perpetual contests with the Thracians and Illyrians, and, being hardened by their arms, as it were by daily exercise, they struck terror into their neighbors by the splendor of their reputation for war. The Illyrians, however, despising the boyhood of a king under age, attacked the Macedonians, who, being worsted in the field, brought out their king with them in his cradle, and, placing him behind the front lines, renewed the fight with greater vigor, as if they had been defeated before, because the fortune of their prince was not with them in the battle, and would now certainly conquer, because, from this superstitious fancy, they had conceived a confidence of victory; while compassion for the infant, also, moved them, as, if they were overcome, they seemed likely to transform him from a king into a captive. Engaging in battle, therefore, they routed the Illyrians with great slaughter, and showed their enemies, that, in the former encounter, it was a king, and not valour, that was wanting to the Macedonians.
(Translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson; London, 1853)
⏎Schedel’s compilation skills are here quite suspect (perhaps accounting for the editorial decision in the ‘revised’ German edition published six months later in 1493 to delete this paragraph?), for either he himself, the typesetter, or the scribe responsible for the text of Justin in Schedel’s library made a mistake by substituting ‘Partheniai’ for ‘Spartanoi’ in the following passage (Justine, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus 4.1-16):
Under such a state of manners, the city acquired, in a short time, such a degree of strength, that, on going to war with the Messenians for offering violence to some of their maidens at a solemn sacrifice of that people, they bound themselves under a severe oath not to return till they had taken Messene, promising themselves so much either from their strength or good fortune. This occurrence was the commencement of dissension in Greece, and the origin and cause of a civil war. But being detained in the siege of this city, contrary to their expectation, for ten years, and called on to return by the complaints of their wives after so long a widowhood, and being afraid that by persevering in the war they might hurt themselves more than the Messenians (for, in Messene, whatever men were lost in the war, were replaced by the fruitfulness of their women, while they themselves suffered constant losses in battle, and could have no offspring from their wives in the absence of their husbands), they in consequence selected, out of the soldiers that had come, after the military oath was first taken, as recruits to the army, a number of young men; whom they sent back to Sparta with permission to form promiscuous connexions with all the women of the city, thinking that conception would be more speedy if each of the females made the experiment with several men. Those who sprung from these unions were called Partheniae (Virgins), as a reflection on their mothers’ violated chastity; and, when they came to thirty years of age, being alarmed with the fear of want (for not one of them had a father to whose estate he could hope to succeed,) they chose a captain named Phalantus, the son of Aratus, by whose advice the Spartans had sent home the young men to propagate, that, as they had formerly had the father for the author of their birth, they might now have the son as the establisher of their hopes and fortunes. Without taking leave of their mothers, therefore, from whose adultery they thought that they derived dishonour, they set out to seek a place of settlement, and being tossed about a long time, and with various mischances, they at last arrived on the coast of Italy, where, after seizing the citadel of the Tarentines, and expelling the old inhabitants, they fixed their abode. But several years after, their leader Phalantus, being driven into exile by a popular tumult, went to Brundusium, whither the former inhabitants of Tarentum had retreated after they were expelled from their city. When he was at the point of death, he urged the exiles "to have his bones, and last relics, bruised to dust, and privately sprinkled in the forum of Tarentum; for that Apollo at Delphi had signified that by this means they might recover their city." They, thinking that he had revealed the destiny of his countrymen to avenge himself, complied with his directions; but the intention of the oracle was exactly the reverse; for it promised the Spartans, upon the performance of what he had said, not the loss, but the perpetual possession of the city. Thus by the subtlety of their exiled captain, and the agency of their enemies, the possession of Tarentum was secured to the Partheniae for ever.
(Translated by Rev. John Selby Watson; London, 1853)
⏎Then all the people of Judah took Uzziah, who was sixteen years old, and made him king in the room of his father Amaziah. . . He reigned fifty and two years. . . And he did that which was right in the sight of the Lord, according to all that his father Amaziah did. And he sought God in the days of Zechariah. . . and as long as he sought the Lord, God made him to prosper. And he went forth and warred against the Philistines, and against the Arabians that dwelt in Gur-baal, and the Mehunims. . . Moreover Uzziah built towers in Jerusalem at the corner gate, and at the valley gate, and at the turning of the wall, and fortified them. . . And he made in Jerusalem engines, invented by cunning men, to be on the towers and upon the bulwarks, to shoot arrows and great stones withal. And his name spread far abroad; for he was marvelously helped till he was strong. But when he was strong, his heart was lifted up to his destruction: for he transgressed against the Lord his God, and went into the temple of the Lord to burn incense upon the altar of incense. And Azariah the priest went in after him, and with him four-score priests of the Lord that were valiant men. And they withstood Uzziah the king, and said to him, It is no concern of yours, Uzziah, to burn incense to the Lord, but to the priests, the sons of Aaron, that are consecrated to burn incense: go out of the sanctuary; for you have trespassed; honor from the Lord God shall not be yours. Then Uzziah was angry, and had a censer in his hand to burn incense: and while he was angry with the priests, the leprosy even rose up in his forehead. . . and they thrust him out from there; and he himself also hastened to go out because the Lord had struck him. And Uzziah the king was leprous to the day of his death. . . and Jotham his son reigned in his stead.⏎
Hezekiah was a distinguished king of Judah, the son and successor of the apostate Ahaz. He ascended the throne at the age of 25 and ruled 29 years, till 697 BCE. During his reign the temple was repaired, and the Passover celebrated. A proclamation was sent from Dan to Beersheba inviting the tribes to Jerusalem to keep the Passover, and as a result of the convocation a national religious zeal broke out. Hezekiah held Isaiah in high esteem and frequently consulted him. He warred against the Philistines, and regained what his father had lost. He rebelled against the domination of Assyria. Sennacherib invaded his kingdom with an immense army, but was miraculously defeated. In the events of his private life, one is to be noted of peculiar significance. The king became sick to death, and Isaiah uttered his doom, telling him that he must die (II Kings 20:1-11):
Then he (Hezekiah) turned his face to the wall and prayed to the Lord. . . And it came to pass, before Isaiah had gone out into the middle court, that the word of the Lord came to him, saying, Turn again, and tell Hezekiah the captain of my people, Thus says the Lord, the God of David, your father, I have heard your prayer, I have seen your tears: behold, I will heal you. . . And I will add to your days fifteen years; and I will deliver you and your city out of the hand of the king of Assyria. . . And Isaiah said, Take a lump of figs. And they took and laid it on the boil and he recovered. And Hezekiah said to Isaiah, What shall be the sign that the Lord will heal me. . . And Isaiah said, This sign shall you have of the Lord, that the Lord will do the thing that he has spoken: Shall the shadow go forward ten degrees or go back ten degrees? And Hezekiah answered, It is a light thing for the shadow to go down ten degrees: No, but let the shadow return backwards ten degrees. And Isaiah the prophet, cried to the Lord: and he brought the shadow ten degrees backward, by which it had gone down in the dial of Ahaz.
Thus as a sign of the cure the dial was made to go back ten degrees. Another event of note in Hezekiah’s life was the punishment pronounced upon his house by Isaiah for the display he made of his riches to the messengers of the king of Babylon, who had come to congratulate him upon his recovery (II Kings 20:15). Hezekiah died in honor and was buried in the "highest of the sepulchers of the sons of David."
⏎Jeremiah was one of the four major prophets, the other three being Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. He was the son of Hilkiah, of Anathoth, in the land of Benjamin, (Jer.1:1) and lived under various kings from Josiah to the Captivity. As Professor Plumptre observes, "there is no one in the ‘goodly fellowship of the prophets’ of whom, in his work, feelings and sufferings, we have so distinct a knowledge, although it is derived almost exclusively from his book. He is the great example of the prophetic life. It is not to be wondered at that he should have seemed to the Christian feeling of the early church a type of Him in whom that life received its highest completion." He was not only the prophet of sorrow and public calamity, but also of a new and better covenant of the heart. Jeremiah was very young when called to his prophetic office, and for 42 years he persisted in this arduous service with diligence and fidelity, in the midst of the severest trials and persecutions. It was probably owing to his youth at the time, and his residence in Anathoth, that when the book of the Law was found in the house of the Lord , the king sent to Huldah the prophetess, instead of to him, to inquire of the Lord (II Kings 22:14). During all this time Jerusalem was in a distracted and deplorable state and the prophet was calumniated, imprisoned, and often in danger of death. But nothing could deter him. His exhortations to the king and rulers were to submit at once to the arms of Nebuchadnezzar, for by that means they would preserve their lives, while continued resistance would bring certain and dreadful destruction on Jerusalem. At this time the city swarmed with false prophets who contradicted Jeremiah and flattered the king and his courtiers that God would rescue them from the impending danger; and after the city was taken and part of the population carried to Babylon, these prophets confidently predicted a speedy return. On the other hand Jeremiah predicted that their captivity would be a long one and would endure for seventy years.
The prophecy of Jeremiah is a reflection of his sad and tender character and the calamities of his age. It embraces a period of 40 years. Jeremiah entered upon the office of prophet in the thirtieth year of Josiah, and his prophecy relates to the judgments that were to come in consequence of the gross idolatry and corruption of the people. His end is uncertain. There are indications that he may have reached extreme old age. On the other hand there is the tradition that the long tragedy of his life ended in actual martyrdom, and that the Jews at Tahpanhes, irritated by his rebukes, finally stoned him to death. Most commentators on the New Testament find an allusion to this in Hebrews 11:37.
This paragraph and the one that follows it (on Saraiah) are switched in the German edition of the Chronicle.
⏎This section is taken from Florus’ Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum omnium annorum DCC Libri duo (1.1). Florus, a Roman historian living at the time of the emperors Trajan and Hadrian, made a very abridged compilation of Roman history taken mainly from Livy. It was a beloved text in the Middle Ages, perhaps because of its ‘rhetorically enhanced’ (even bombastic) shaping of Roman historical events.
Romulus found the people too few in numbers. The city had become filled with men, but they wanted women. Romulus therefore tried to form treaties with the neighboring tribes in order to obtain connubium, or the right of legal marriage with his citizens; but his offers were met with disdain, and he resolved to obtain by force what he could not gain by entreaty. Four months after the foundation of the city, he proclaimed that games were to be celebrated in honor of the god Consus, and invited his neighbors, the Latins and the Sabines, to the festival. Suspecting no treachery, they came in numbers, with their wives and children. But the Roman youths rushed upon their guests and carried off the virgins. The parents returned home and prepared for vengeance. Three of the Latin towns took up arms, but were successively defeated by the Romans. At last the Sabine king advanced with a powerful army and desperate battles were fought. At length when both parties were exhausted by the struggle, the Sabine women rushed in between them, and prayed their husbands and fathers to be reconciled. Their prayer was heard; the two people not only made peace, but agreed to form a single nation. Finally, Romulus ruled alone over both Romans and Sabines. He reigned 37 years, and was at length taken away from the world. One day as he was reviewing his people in the Campus Martius, near the Goat’s Pool (Caprea), the sun was suddenly eclipsed, darkness overspread the earth, and a dreadful storm dispersed the people. When daylight returned, Romulus had disappeared, for his father Mars had carried him up to heaven in a fiery chariot.
As Romulus was regarded as the father of Rome, its most ancient political institutions and the organization of the people were ascribed to him. Thus he is said to have divided the people into three tribes which bore the names Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. The Ramnes were supposed to have derived their name from Romulus, the Tities from Titus Tatius, the Sabine king, and the Luceres from Lucumo, an Etruscan chief who had assisted Romulus against the Sabines. Each tribe contained ten curiae, which received their names from the thirty Sabine women who had brought about the peace. Each curia contained ten gentes, and each gens 100 men. Thus the people, according to general belief were originally divided into 3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 gentes, which mustered 3000 men, who fought on foot, and were called a legion. Besides those there were 300 horsemen, called Celeres. To assist him in the government of the people Romulus is said to have selected a number of aged men in the state, who were called Patres or Senatores. The council itself, which was called the senatus, originally consisted of 100 members, but this was increased to 200 when the Sabines were incorporated into the state. In addition to the senate, there was another assembly, consisting of the members of the gentes, which bore the name of comitia, because they voted in it according to their division into curiae.
⏎Phalaris, tyrant of Acragas (Agrigentum) in Sicily, c. 570-554 BCE, was entrusted with the building of the temple of Zeus Atabyrius in the citadel, and took advantage of his position to make himself despot. Under his rule Agrigentum seems to have attained considerable prosperity. He supplied the city with water, adorned it with fine buildings, and fortified it with walls. On the northern coast of the island the people of Himera elected him general with absolute power, in spite of the warnings of the poet Stesichorus. According to Suidas he succeeded in making himself master of the entire island. He was finally overthrown in a general uprising, headed by Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron (tyrant c. 488-472) and burned in his brazen bull.
Succeeding ages have held up Phalaris to infamy for his excessive cruelty. In his brazen bull, invented, it is said, by Perillus of Athens, the tyrant’s victims were shut up, and a fire was kindled beneath, and they were roasted alive, while their shrieks represented the bellowing of the bull. Perillus himself is said to have been the first victim.
Later tradition, however, represents Phalaris as a naturally humane man and a patron of philosophy and literature. Plutarch, though he takes the unfavorable view, mentions that the Sicilians gave to the severity of Phalaris the name of justice and a hatred of crime.
This paragraph is switched in order with the one that follows it (on the Erythraean Sibyl) in the German edition of the Chronicle.
⏎This paragraph, which is an epigram (known as Carmina 1.51 De Roma) composed by Aeneas Silvius (1405-1464, and later Pope Pius II, r. 1458-64) is not in the German edition of the Chronicle. In verse it appears thus:
Gibbon cites this epigram as a footnote in his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, in support of the following comment (Chapter LXXI, section III): "A fragment, a ruin, howsoever mangled or profaned, may be viewed with pleasure and regret; but the greater part of the marble was deprived of substance, as well as of place and proportion; it was burnt to lime for the purpose of cement. Since the arrival of Poggius, the temple of Concord, and many capital structures, had vanished from his eyes; and an epigram of the same age expresses a just and pious fear, that the continuance of this practice would finally annihilate all the monuments of antiquity."
⏎Genoa (Italian Genova) was from earliest times the chief maritime city of Liguria, situated on the Gulf of Genoa, known as the Ligurian Sea, but in ancient times called Sinus Ligusticus. Its situation, rising above the sea in a wide semicircle, and its numerous palaces have earned it the name of La Superba. The old town is a network of narrow and steep streets, lined with many-storied buildings. At a very early period Genoa was the chief city on the Ligurian coast, and the principal emporium of trade in this region of the Mediterranean, an advantage which it naturally owed to the excellence of its port, combined with the facility of communication with the interior through the valley of the Portiere. Its name is not mentioned until the second Punic War, but it then appears at once as a place of considerable importance. Hence, when the consul P. Scipio abandoned the pursuit of Hannibal up the Rhone, he at once returned with his fleet to Genoa, with the view of proceeding from thence to oppose the Carthaginian general in the valley of the Po. At a later period of the war, when Mago (son of Hamilcar Barca, and youngest brother of Hannibal) sought to renew the contest in Liguria and Cisalpine Gaul, it was at Genoa that he landed, making himself master of that city in the first instance. After holding the town for two years he destroyed it and quit the country, and on this account we find the Roman praetor Sp. Lucretius charged with the duty of rebuilding it. From this time Genoa is rarely mentioned, and its name only occurs incidentally during the wars of the Romans with the Ligurians and Spaniards. It afterward became a Roman municipum, and Strabo speaks of it as a flourishing town.
No ancient authority supports the orthography of Janua, or Genua, which appears to have come into vogue in the Middle Ages for the purpose of supporting the fabulous tradition that ascribed the foundation of the city to Janus. This form of the name is first found in Liutprand, a Lombard writer of the tenth century. It is believed by some to have derived its name from the fact that the shape of the coast here resembles that of a knee (genu).
The history of the city during the Dark Ages is but the repetition of the general history of the Italian communes. The patriotic spirit and naval prowess of the Genoese, developed in their defensive wars against the Saracens, led to the foundation of a popular constitution and to the growth of a powerful marine. From the necessity of joining an alliance against the common Saracen foe. Genoa united with Pisa early in the eleventh century in expelling the Moslems from the island of Sardinia. But this island soon furnished occasions of jealousy to the conquering allies, and there commenced between the two republics the long naval wars that terminated fatally for Pisa in the battle of Meloria, in 1284. From this disaster Pisa never recovered, and Genoa now obtained the supremacy over the western islands, Corsica, and nominally over Sardinia also. At a still earlier period Genoa had participated in the Crusades, and secured to herself great trade advantages with the Levant. The seaports wrested at the same period from the Saracens, along the Spanish and Barbary coasts, became important Genoese colonies, while in the Levant, on the shores of the Black Sea, and along the banks of the Euphrates were erected Genoese fortresses of great strength. She also possessed settlements at Constantinople and in the Crimea, in Syria and Cyprus, at Tunis and Majorca. Her commercial and naval successes during the Middle Ages are the more remarkable, because unlike her rival, Venice, she suffered unceasingly from internal discord – the Genoese commons and nobles fighting against each other, rival factions among the nobles striving to grasp the supreme power of the state, nobles and commons alike invoking the arbitration and rule of some foreign prince as the sole means of obtaining a temporary truce. And so Genoa was soon drawn into the vortex of the Guelph and Ghibelline factions; but its recognition of foreign authority – German, Neapolitan, and Milanese – gave way to greater independence in 1339, when the government assumed a permanent form with the appointment of the first doge, an office held at Genoa for life, in the person of Simone Boccanegra. Alternate victories and defeats of the Genoese and Venetians were at length terminated by a decisive victory gained by the Venetians in 1380.
The internal history of the city was no less checkered than the external. The admiral of Emperor Charles V., Andrea Doria, at length restored peace by the establishment of a new oligarchic constitution in 1528. But the power of Genoa was on the wane. The Turks conquered its eastern possessions one after another. In 1684 Genoa was taken by the French. In 1805 it was formally annexed to the empire of France, and in 1815 to the Kingdom of Sardinia. Its later history is beyond the scope of our subject.
Although the city of Genoa possesses a number of celebrated ecclesiastical edifices such as the cathedral of San Lorenzo, dating back to the tenth century, and the venerable church of San Matteo, to which Oberto in 1266 brought the bell from Canea, and in which the seal and great standard of Pisa were placed after the battle of Meloria, the chronicler does not mention either one of these buildings, nor any other of the structures in existence during his time. He does state that the city is blessed with "the ashes of the forerunner of the Lord, and with the precious smaragdine Sacro Catino, a bowl or basin from which (as they say) the Lord Jesus Christ and his disciples partook of the Paschal Lamb at the Last Supper." The first reference is to John the Baptist, in whose chapel, erected in 1451-96, is a stone chest of the thirteenth century containing relics of John the Baptist, brought from Palestine during the Crusades. In the sacristy is the Cathedral Treasury, containing the Sacro Catino, the vessel out of which Jesus and his disciples are said to have partaken of the Paschal Lamb, and in which Joseph of Arimathea is said to have caught some drops of the blood of the crucified Jesus. It is said to have been captured by the Genoese at Caesarea in 1101, and was supposed to have been made of a large emerald (smaragd). For centuries the Genoese pretended to believe that it was cut of a single emerald. It is an octagonal basin of dark green Venetian glass, very transparent, and about which a collection of mysterious tales have gathered. Not only is it said to have been hollowed out of an emerald of the purest water, but it was held to have formed part of the treasure given by Solomon to the Queen of Sheba. Some said also that it was the dish of the Holy Grail, and it was guarded with the utmost care by twelve clavigeri, each of whom had to be a knight, and was bound to watch over the catino for a month in each year. Napoleon I came to Genoa and carried the catino off to Paris. In the course of the journey it was broken, and the fragments came back – no longer emerald, but glass – to lie decked with fine goldsmith’s work in San Lorenzo. William of Tyre, who was contemporary with the taking of Caesarea, remarks that the catino was just a piece of glass.
It is disappointing also that the chronicler makes no reference to the Palazzo Ducale, the grand old residence of the doges, originally a building of the thirteenth century, to which the tower on the left belonged.
⏎The Seven Wise Men of Greece, or the Seven Sages, as they are also called, were the authors of the celebrated mottoes inscribed in later days in the Temple of Apollo at Delphi: "Know yourself." (Solon of Athens); "Consider the end." (Chilon of Lacedaemon) "Know your opportunity." (Pittacus of Mitylene) "Most men are bad." (Bias of Priene) "Nothing is impossible to industry." (Periander of Corinth) "Avoid excesses." (Cleobulus of Lindus) "Certainty is the precursor of ruin." (Thales of Miletus).
The origin of the title "Seven Wise Men" was this: Some fishermen of Miletus sold a draught of fish to some bystanders before the net was drawn in. When the draught came in, there was also in the net a golden tripod. The fishermen claimed they had sold only the fish, while the buyer insisted he had bought the whole draught. To settle the dispute they referred the matter to the Oracle of Delphi. Being ordered to adjudge the tripod to the wisest man in Greece, they offered it to their fellow citizen Thales; but he modestly replied that there was a wiser man than he, and sent it to Bias. He also declined, and sent the tripod to another; and thus it passed through seven hands, and these seven were afterward called the "Seven Wise Men of Greece." It was finally placed in the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. These seven men met together but twice—once at Delphi, and again at Corinth.
⏎Substantial and important texts dealing with Solon are the first book of Herodotus’ Histories, Aristotle’s Athenian Constitution (Athenaion Politeia) and Plutarch’s Life of Solon. From Plutarch we learn that Solon was born about 640 BCE and that he was the son of Execestides, a man of but moderate wealth and political influence, though he belonged to one of the highest families in Athens. Solon came into prominence in the contest between Athens and Megara for the possession of the island of Salamis. Through his strategy and encouragement of his fellow citizens, the island was recovered from the Megarians.
Solon’s attention was turned to the distracted state of his country, due to party disputes, aggravated by the misery of the poor. The lower classes were in a state of mutiny, and it had become impossible to enforce the laws. All turned to Solon to alleviate the prevailing miseries. He was chosen Archon, with unlimited power. He addressed himself to the relief of the distressed, which he accomplished by his celebrated disburdening ordinance, by which the burdens of debtors were lightened with as little infringement as possible on the right of their wealthy creditors. He abolished the law giving the creditor the power to enslave an insolvent debtor. He lowered the rate of interest, although about this there is a dispute. He depreciated the coinage. Although at first nothing more was contemplated in the investment of Solon with dictatorial powers than the relief of the existing distress, his success procured for him such confidence and popularity that he was charged with the task of entirely remodeling the constitution. By this the right of citizens to the honors and offices of the state was regulated, not by nobility of birth, but by their wealth, and for this purpose the citizens were divided into four classes. He created an assembly of four Hundred, to which each class sent one hundred representatives. There were no doubt public assemblies of some kind before his time, though probably possessed of but little power. Solon undoubtedly greatly enlarged the functions of the assembly. He gave it the right of electing the archons and other magistrates whom he made directly accountable to the assembly when their year of office was expired. Every member of any of the four classes had a vote in the assembly, and all votes seem to have had the same weight.
Solon was also the author of a great variety of special laws. If a father did not teach his son some trade or profession, the son was not liable to maintain his father in old age. Idleness was punishable. The exportation of all produce except olive oil was prohibited. Solon was the first who gave those who died childless the power of disposing of their property by will. He enacted laws relating to marriage, especially with regard to heiresses. Frantic and excessive manifestations of grief at funerals were prohibited. The law that the thief should restore twice the value of the thing stolen seems to have originated with him. The laws were inscribed on wooden rollers and triangular tablets, and were set up at first in the Acropolis and afterwards in the Prytaneium. This act in itself was revolutionary, for it encouraged literacy and took the law out of the hands of so-called experts (and their ‘flexible’ memories) and made it common knowledge for all the members of the society.
Solon also rectified the calendar, introducing a division of time agreeing more accurately with the course of the moon. He is said to have been the first to introduce among the Greeks months of 29 and 30 days alternately.
From the government and the people he exacted an oath that they would observe his laws without alteration for a certain period (20 years according to Herodotus, 100 years according to others). He was aware that his laws were not perfect and was greatly annoyed by those who came to him with all kinds of complaints. To escape them he absented himself from Athens for ten years. He visited Egypt and conversed with learned Egyptian priests. From there he went on to Cyprus where he was received with great honor. Then, according to Herodotus, he made his way to the court of Croesus in Lydia. The interviews between Solon and Croesus spoken of by Herodotus (and later adapted by Plutarch in his biography of Solon) are undoubtedly fictitious, but very interesting nevertheless both in themselves and in the fact that they lay the foundation for Aristotle’s celebrated definition of happiness (the Nicomachean Ethics are, among many other things, an extended meditation on the ideas espoused by Solon in Herodotus’ History). During Solon’s absence dissensions at home were renewed. Matters were approaching a crisis when he returned to Athens. Pisistratus, a distant relative of Solon, was able to overthrow the state and have himself made sole authority in Athens. Yet he paid considerable court to Solon and on various occasions solicited his advice, which Solon did not withhold. More importantly, he kept all of Solon’s laws and constitutional reforms, thus laying the foundation for the world’s first democracy some two generations later (in 510-508 BCE). We do not know how long Solon survived the overthrow of the constitution.
⏎Epimenides was a celebrated poet and prophet of Crete, whose history is to a great extent mythical. He was reckoned among the Curetes, and is said to have been the son of a nymph. He was a native of Phaestus in Crete, and appears to have spent the greatest part of his life at Cnossus, whence he is sometimes called a Cnossian. There is a legend that when a boy, he was sent out by his father in search of a sheep, and that seeking shelter from the heat of the midday sun, he went into a cave and there fell into a deep sleep which lasted 57 years. On waking and returning home, he found to his great amazement that his younger brother had in the meantime grown an old man. He is further said to have attained the age of 154, 157, or even of 229 years. His visit to Athens, however, is an historical fact and determines his date. The Athenians were visited by a plague in consequence of the sacrilege committed by Cylon, and they consulted the Delphic oracle about the means of their delivery. The god commanded them to get their city purified, and the Athenians invited Epimenides to come and undertake the purification. And so he came, about 596 BCE, and performed the task by mysterious rites and sacrifices, in consequence of which the plague ceased.
Epimenides was reckoned by some among the seven wise Men of Greece; but all that tradition has handed down about him suggests a very different character from that of the seven; he must rather be ranked in the class of priestly bards and sages who are generally comprised under the name of the Orphici. Many works, both in prose and verse, were attributed to him by the ancients, and Paul has preserved (Titus, 1.12) a celebrated verse of his against the Cretans.
The last sentence of this paragraph in the German edition of the Chronicle substitutes "the very wise Solon" with "Solomon the Wise."
⏎Simonides of Ceos (c. 556-467 BCE), one of the most celebrated lyric poets of Greece, was born at Julis, in the island of Ceos, as we learn from one of his own epigrams. He lived to the age of 89 years, was a master of elegiac verse and of epigrams, and the rival of Pindar in the dithyramb and the epinician ode. It appears that his family held some hereditary office in connection with the worship of Dionysus, and that the poet himself, when a boy, officiated in the service of the god at whose festivals he afterward gained many victories. He appears also to have been brought up to music and poetry as a profession.
From his native island Simonides moved to Athens, probably on the invitation of Hipparchus, the tyrant, at whose court he spent the best years of his life, probably from 528 to 514. He had completed his 80th year when his long poetic career at Athens was crowned by the victory that he gained with the dithyrambic chorus (477), being the fifty-sixth prize that he had carried off. It must have been shortly after this that he was invited to Syracuse by Hiero, whose court he lived till his death in 467. He was not only renowned for his poetic skills, but also for his political and moral wisdom; and he appears to have been especially anxious to emulate the fame of the Seven Wise Men, both for their wisdom itself and for their brief form of expressing it. Some ancient writers even reckoned him in the number of those sages. The leading principle of his philosophy appears to have been the calm enjoyment of the pleasures of the present life, both intellectual and material, the making as light as possible of its cares, patience in bearing its evils, and moderation in the standard by which human character should be judged. He made literature a profession and did not hesitate to exact compensation for his labors.
⏎Marseilles is the French name for what was originally the Greek colony of Massalia (Latin Massilia). This colony was founded as early as the year 600 BCE by the mariners of Phocaea. In 542 BCE the fall of the Phocaean cities before the Persians probably sent new settlers to the Ligurian coast and cut off Massalia from close connection with the mother country. Isolated amid alien population, the Massalians made their way by prudence and by vigilant administration of their oligarchic government, and their colonies spread east and west, carrying with them the worship of Artemis. The great rival of Massalian trade was Carthage, and in the Punic Wars the city took the side of Rome, and was rewarded by Roman assistance in the subjugation of the native tribes of Liguria. In the war between Caesar and Pompey Massilia took Pompey’s side, and in 49 BCE offered a vain resistance to Caesar’s lieutenant Trebonius. In memory of its ancient services the city was left as a civitas libera (‘free state’) but her power was broken and most of her dependencies taken from her. From this time Massilia has little place in Roman history. It became for a time an important school of letters and medicine, but its commercial and intellectual importance declined. It appears to have been Christianized before the end of the third century, and at the beginning of the fourth century was the scene of the martyrdom of St. Victor.
After the ravages of successive invaders, Marseilles was repopulated in the tenth century under the protection of its viscounts. The town gradually bought up their rights, and at the beginning of the thirteenth century became a republic. In 1245 and 1256 Charles of Anjou, count of Provence, whose predecessors had left the citizens a large measure of independence, established his authority above that of the republic. In 1423 Alphonso V of Aragon sacked the town. King Rene, who had made it his winter residence, however, caused trade, arts and manufacturers again to flourish. On the embodiment of Provence in the kingdom of France in 1481, Marseilles preserved a separate administration directed by royal officials.
⏎Pherecydes of Syros, one of the Cyclades, was a son of Babys. The name of his birthplace, coupled with the traditions respecting the Eastern origin of his philosophical opinions, led many writers to state that he was born in Syria or Assyria. According to the concurrent testimony of antiquity, Pherecydes was the teacher of Pythagoras, although it is claimed by some that he received no instruction in philosophy from any master, but obtained his knowledge from the secret books of the Phoenicians. He was a rival of Thales, and like Thales and Pythagoras, was a disciple of the Egyptians and Chaldaeans. According to a favorite tradition in antiquity, Pherecydes died of the lousy disease, or Morbus Pediculosus; though others say that he threw himself from a rock at Delphi.
Pherecydes was, properly speaking, not a philosopher. He lived at a time when men began to speculate on cosmogony and the nature of the gods, but had hardly yet commenced the study of true philosophy. Hence he is referred to by Aristotle as partly a mythological writer, and Plutarch and others give him the title of ‘theologos’. The most important subject he taught was the immortality of the soul. He maintained that there were three principia (Zeus or Aether, Chthona or Chaos, and Cronos or Time), and four elements (fire, earth, air and water), from which is formed everything that exists.
⏎Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher, a native of Samos, and flourished about 532 BCE. He is said to have been a pupil of Pherecydes. He left in Ionia the reputation of a learned and universally informed man. "Of all men," says Heracleitus, "Pythagoras, the son of Mnesarchus, was the most assiduous enquirer." The extensive travels attributed to Pythagoras are not doubt mostly apocryphal, but there is no intrinsic improbability in the statement of Isocrates that he visited Egypt and other Mediterranean countries. According to tradition he was driven from Samos by the tyranny of Polycrates, and migrated to Croton. There he became the center of a widespread organization, which was originally a religious brotherhood for the moral reformation of society, rather than a philosophical school. The Pythagorean brotherhood had much in common with the Orphic communities which sought by rites and abstinences to purify the believer’s soul and enable it to escape from the "wheel of birth." The society became entangled in politics, resulting in its dismemberment and suppression. The first reaction against the Pythagoreans, led by Cylon, seems to have taken place in the lifetime of Pythagoras, resulting in his retirement to Metapontium, where he remained until his death. The order appears to have continued powerful in Magna Graecia till the middle of the fifth century, when it was violently stamped out. Those who survived took refuge at Thebes and other places. One of the foremost doctrines of Pythagoras is the theory of the immortality and transmigration of the soul, a teaching connected with the primitive belief in the kinship of men and beasts. The Pythagorean rule of abstinence from flesh is thus, in its origin, a taboo resting on the blood-brotherhood of men and beasts. The scientific doctrines of this school have no apparent connection with its religious mysticism. Their discourses and speculations all connect themselves with the idea of numbers, and the school holds an important place in the history of mathematical and astronomical science. Pythagoras made geometry part of a liberal education, considering its principles and theorems from an immaterial and intellectual standpoint. His greatest discovery was perhaps that of the dependence of the musical intervals on certain arithmetical rations of lengths of strings at the same tension. He was the first to hold the earth and universe to be spherical. He realized that the sun, moon and planets have a motion of their own. It is improbable that he himself was responsible for the astronomical system bearing his name, which deposed the earth from its place in the center, and made it a planet like the rest. For him the earth was still apparently at the center and the later Pythagorean system is attributed alternatively to Philolaus and Hicetas. The system is this: The universe is spherical and finite in size. Outside it is infinite void, which enables the universe to breathe, as it were. At the center is the simple fire, called the Heart of the Universe (among other names), wherein is situated the governing principle, the force which directs the movement and activity of the universe. In the universe there revolved about the central fire these bodies: Nearest to the central fire is the "counter-earth" which always accompanies the earth; next in order, reckoning outwards, is the earth, then the moon, then the sun, then the five planets, and lastly the sphere of fixed stars. The counter-earth, revolving in a smaller orbit than the earth, is not seen by us because the hemisphere in which we live is always turned away from the counter-earth. The analogy of the moon, which always turns the same side to us, may have suggested this. This part of the theory involves the assumption that the earth rotates about its own axis in the same time as it takes to complete its orbit round the central fire; and, as the latter revolution was held to produce day and night, it is a fair inference that the earth was thought to revolve around the central fire in a day and night, or in twenty-four hours.
The system amounts to a first step toward the Copernican hypothesis, and Copernicus himself referred to it as such. The curious thing is the introduction of the counter-earth, the object of which, according to Aristotle, was to bring the number of revolving "bodies" up to ten, the perfect number according to the Pythagoreans. But elsewhere he hints at the truer explanation, when he says that eclipses of the moon were considered due sometimes to the interposition of the earth, sometimes to the interposition of the counter-earth, whence it would appear that the counter-earth was invented in order to explain the frequency of lunar eclipses as compared with solar ones.
⏎Daniel, one of the four major prophets, was of noble, perhaps royal descent, and probably born at Jerusalem. In his youth he was carried captive to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, together with three other Hebrew youths of rank, Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah in 604 BCE. He was there instructed in the language and arts of the Chaldaeans, and with his three companions, trained for the royal service in the palace. They refused to eat of the king’s meat and to drink his wine, but chose "pulse and water." After three years training Daniel interpreted a dream for the king, and in reward was made ruler of the whole province of Babylon, and chief of the governors over all the wise men. In this capacity he won great fame. He also prophesied for the king and his successor.
Under Darius the Mede, Daniel was made the first of the "three presidents" of the empire. His enemies influenced Darius to forbid all prayer save unto the king for thirty days. But Daniel did not stop praying, and so was cast into a den of lions for punishment. But the Lord delivered him, and he was kept in his office. In the reign of Cyrus he likewise prospered, but seems to have left Babylon. When and where he died is uncertain. He is to be compared with Joseph at the court of Pharaoh. Both were involuntary exiles, and both statesmen. Both maintained their religion and personal character in the face of idolatry and corruption; both rose by their wisdom and integrity from slavery to the highest dignity in a pagan empire.
⏎Bologna, anciently Bononia, was an important town of Gallia Cispadana, in Italy. According to classical writers it was of Etruscan origin. It is situated at the foot of the northern spur of the Apennines, in the very center of Italy, on a rich and fertile plain. Nature has lavished her gifts in this region; the soil is rich and fertile; corn, wine, oil, hemp, and other products of the earth justify one of Bologna’s titles of La Grassa, and from an agricultural standpoint she ranks high among Italian states. A more dignified surname, La Dotta (‘learned’), comes to her through the famous University; while another, that of La Gentile, is due to the ready courtesy she extends to foreigners.
The first name borne by the city was that of Felsina, from Felsino, King of Tuscany, who according to Girardacci (Della Historia di Bologna), reigned from 897 to 865 BCE. Another legend ascribes the name to Felsina, daughter of one Fero, who with his daughter and his wife Aposa have come to this spot with the intention of building a house here. One day, overcome by toil and heat, he fainted, but was revived by his daughter, who restored him with some water from a neighboring stream, and prayed that as a reward for her labors, the place might be called after her. This the father did.
King Felsino was followed by his son Bono, who loved the town so dearly that he altered its name to Bononia, after himself, a name by which it was known for years, and from which with slight modifications it has become the Bologna of today.
Bologna was made the metropolis of twelve other cities, and remained under the rule of the Truscans till the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, fifth king of Rome (580 BCE), when the Celtic Gauls under Belloveso crossed the Alps, drove the Etruscans from before them, and spread victoriously over the rich lands lying between the Apennines and the Adriatic. They retained Bologna as their capital.
Bologna, "with the region of Felsina," was assigned to the Boii, a strong and numerous tribe of the Gauls, who confirmed the choice of Bologna as the capital. Their possession was hotly contested by the Romans, and the Romans finally triumphed. It became a Roman colony in 189 BCE. Three thousand colonists with Latin rights were established there, and the city attained military and commercial importance. But its name does not again occur in history until the period of the Civil Wars. It was here that Octavian, at the head of his army, met the combined forces of Antonius and Lepidus, and arranged the terms of the Second Triumvirate. The city appears to have been under the special patronage of the Antonian family, and the Triumvir in consequence settled there many of his friends and dependents. Pliny and Tacitus speak of it as an important and flourishing place under the Roman Empire, and it seems to have retained its prosperity thereafter.
Fire was one of the hindrances that often held up building operations in Bologna, houses being entirely of wood and the roofs all of the thatch. The first fire recorded was 50 CE, and it destroyed almost the entire town. Nero, then a youth and high in favor with the emperor, was moved at the sight of the ruin and distress, and pleaded that help be sent from Rome. Funds were appropriated, the city was restored and rebuilt, and eventually Nero himself rebuilt the baths, and at his death bequeathed a sum to endow them.
Bononia was able to resist Alaric in 410 CE, and afterward belonged to the Greek exarchate of Ravenna.
The Roman city, orientated on the points of the compass, with the streets at right angles, can be readily distinguished from the outer city, fortified in 1206. The streets leading to the gates of the latter radiate from the outskirts, and not from the center, of the former.
The famous university of Bologna was founded in the 11th century. The students numbered between 3,000 and 5,000 in the 12th to the 15th century, and in 1262, it is said, nearly ten thousand. Among its professors were Giovanni d’Andrea and Giovanni Andrea Calderini, an eminent lawyer. Among its students were both Dante and Petrarch. Among the illustrious natives of Bologna’s later days is Luigi Galvani (after whom galvanism was named). The last and perhaps the greatest name on this list is that of Giosue Carducci, the great poet of United Italy, who died at Bologna in 1907, respected, mourned and beloved by the whole population.
⏎But the Chalcedonians, though situated near by, on the opposite shore, have no share in this abundance, because the pelamydes (tunny-fish) do not approach their harbors; hence the saying that Apollo, when the men who founded Byzantium at a time subsequent to the founding of Chalcedon by the Megarians consulted the oracle, ordered them to ‘make their settlement opposite the blind,’ thus calling the Chalcedonians ‘blind’ because, although they sailed the regions in question at an earlier time, they failed to take possession of the country on the far side, with all its wealth, and chose the poorer country.⏎
Megara was situated about a mile from the sea opposite the island of Salamis, and is celebrated in the history of philosophy as the seat of the Megarian School, which was founded by Euclid, a native of the city, and a disciple of Socrates. Chalcedon is a Greek city on the coast of the Propontis at the entrance of the Bosphorus, nearly opposite Byzantium. It was founded by a colony from Megara in 685 BCE. Byzantium, a Greek city on the Bosphorus, occupied the most easterly of the seven hills of modern Constantinople. It was founded by Megarians and Argives under Byzas about 657 BCE. It was destroyed in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, but recolonized by the Spartan Pausanias in 479 BCE. Its situation was beautiful and secure. It controlled the Euxine grain trade. The depth of its harbors rendered its quays accessible to vessels of large burden, while the fisheries were so lucrative that the curved inlet near which it stood became known as the Golden Horn. The population was partly Lacedaemonian and partly Athenian. It was thus a subject of dispute between these States and was alternately in the possession of each, till it fell into the hands of the Macedonians. About seven years after its second colonization, the Athenian Cimon wrested it from the Lacedaemonians; but in 440 BCE it returned to its former allegiance. Alcibiades, after a severe blockade (408 BCE) gained possession of the city through the treachery of the Athenian party. In 405 BCE it was retaken by Lysander and placed under a Spartan governor. It was under the Lacedaemonians when the Ten Thousand, exasperated by the conduct of the governor, made themselves masters of the city, and would have pillaged it but for the eloquence of Zenophon. In 390 BCE Thrasybulus expelled the Lacedaemonian oligarchy, and restored democracy and the Athenian influence.
Byzantium joined with the islands of Rhodes, Chios, Cos, and Mausolus, king of Caria, in throwing off the yoke of Athens, but sought Athenian assistance when Philip of Macedon advanced against it. The Athenians suffered a severe defeat at the hands of the Macedonian admiral, but in the following year gained a decisive victory and compelled Philip to raise the siege. The deliverance of the besieged from a surprise, by means of a flash of lightning that revealed the advancing Macedonian army, has rendered this siege memorable. As a memorial of the miraculous interference, the Byzantines erected an altar to Torch-bearing Hecate, and stamped a crescent on their coins, a device which is retained by the Turks to this day.
During the reign of Alexander, Byzantium was compelled to acknowledge the Macedonian supremacy, after the decline of which it regained its independence, but suffered from the incursion of the Scythians. The losses that they sustained by land roused the Byzantines to indemnify themselves from the vessels that crowded the harbor, and the merchantmen that cleared the straits; but this provoked war with neighboring powers.
During the first years of its alliance with Rome, Byzantium held the rank of a free confederate city; but it was later subjected to the imperial jurisdiction and gradually stripped of its privileges. It was besieged and taken (196 CE) by Severus, who destroyed it, demolished the famous wall, and put the principal inhabitants to the sword. Relenting, Severus later rebuilt a large portion of the town, naming it Augusta and Antonina. It had scarcely begun to recover its former position when, through the capricious resentment of Gallienus, the inhabitants were once more put to the sword and the town was pillaged. From this disaster the inhabitants recovered so far as to be able to check an invasion of the Goths in the reign of Claudius II, and the fortifications were strengthened during the civil wars which followed the abdication of Diocletian. Diocletian had resolved to transfer his capital to Nicomedia; but Constantine, struck with the advantages which the situation of Byzantium presented, resolved to build a new city there on the site of the old and transfer the seat of government to it (330 CE).
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