brine in Nevada is much less energy
intensive than production from the
spodumene. Brines enriched in lithium
chloride-averaging about 300 parts per
million when operation began in
1966-are pumped from the ground and
progress through a series of evaporation
ponds. Over the course of a year to 18
months, concentration of the brine
increases to 6,000 parts per million of
lithium through solar evaporation. When
the lithium chloride reaches optimum
concentration, the liquid is pumped to a
recovery plant and treated with soda ash,
precipitating lithium carbonate.  The
carbonate is then removed through
filtration, dried, and shipped.
Cyprus Foote Mineral Co., a
subsidiary of Cyprus Minerals Co.,
produced lithium carbonate from its brine
deposit in Silver Peak, NV, and
spodumene concentrate at its mine in
Kings Mountain, NC. Cyprus Foote
operated  processing  facilities  for
downstream lithiumproducts and metal in
Kings Mountain; Sunbright, VA; and
New Johnsonville, TN. The company
continued  to  maintain its lithium
carbonate plant at Kings Mountain on a
care-and-maintenance status as it had
since mid-1986.   In  1993, Cyprus
Minerals merged with Amax Inc. to form
Cyprus Amax Minerals Co. The merger
had little impact on the lithium operations
during the year.
FMC Corp., Lithium Div., formerly
Lithium Corp. of America (Lithco),
mined spodumene from pegmatite dikes
near Bessemer City, NC. The company
produced lithium carbonate and a full
range of downstream compounds,
including lithium metal and some organic
lithium compounds, at a chemical plant
near the mine.   The company also
operated a butyllithium plant in Bayport,
TX.
Consumption and Uses
Ceramics and glass production and
aluminum  smelters were the largest
consumers of lithium carbonate and
lithium concentrates in the United States,
comprising an estimated 20% and 18 % of
the lithium market, respectively. Other


consuming industries were synthetic
rubber  and  pharmaceuticals,  13 %;
chemical   manufacturing,    13 %;
miscellaneous   chemicals,   12 %;
lubricants, 11 %; batteries, 7%; and air
treatment, 4% .  Estimated domestic
consumption was unchanged from that of
1992.
Lithium carbonate and mineral
concentrate additions in ceramics and
glass manufacturing processes lower
process melting points, reduce the
coefficient of thermal expansion and the
viscosity, and eliminate the use of more
toxic chemicals. The manufacture of
thermal-shock-resistant  cookware
(pyroceranics) consumed the majority of
lithium used in the ceramics and glass
industry domestically. The manufacture
of black and white television picture tubes
consumed significant amounts of lithium
concentrates  overseas.   Low-iron
spodumene and petalite were a source of
lithium used to improve the physical
properties of container and bottle glass
and as a source of alumina, another
important component of the glass. Glass
manufacturers used lithium in container
and bottle glass, enabling them to
produce lighter weight, thinner walled
products.
Aluminum producers added lithium
carbonate to cryolite baths in aluminum
potlines. The chemistry of the potline
converts it to lithium fluoride, lowering
the melting point of the bath, allowing a
lower operating temperature for the
potline, and increasing the electrical
conductivity of the bath. Operators used
these factors to increase production or
reduce power consumption.
The third largest end use for lithium
compounds is as catalysts in the
production of synthetic rubbers and
plastics and  pharmaceuticals.  N-
butyllithium  initiates  the  reactions
between styrene and butadiene that form
abrasion-resistant synthetic rubber and
thermoplastic rubbers that require no
vulcanization.  Other organic lithium
compounds are important in the
production of polyolefins such as
polyethylene, a low-cost, high-strength
plastic. Lithium metal and compounds
also are used by drug manufacturers in


the production of a number of drugs,
including Vitamin A, some steroids, an
anticholesterol  drug,  an  analgesic,
antihistamines,  tranquilizers,  sleep
inducers,   and    contraceptives.
Pharmaceutical-grade lithium carbonate is
approved directly for the treatment for
manic-depressive psychosis. This is the
only treatment approved by the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration in which
lithium is consumed by the patient.
The multipurpose grease industry was
another of the important end uses for
lithium in 1991. Lithium hydroxide
monohydrate was the compound used for
the production of lithium lubricants.
Lithium-base greases are favored for their
retention;of lubricating properties over a
wide temperature range; good resistance
to water, oxidation, and hardening; and
formation of a stable grease on cooling
after melting. These greases continued to
be utilized in military, industrial,
automotive, aircraft, and marine
applications.
Almost all major battery manufacturers
marketed some type of lithium batteries,
and research and development continued
for further substitution in applications that
implement more conventional alkaline
batteries.  These batteries represent a
growth area for lithium consumption, and
new battery configurations continue to be
developed.    Continued  interest in
electrically powered vehicles spurred
additional interest in battery research.
New, more efficient types of rechargeable
(secondary) lithium batteries have been
developed and improved to meet the
needs for this market and for electronic
equipment, such as portable telephones
and video cameras. Work continued on
lithium polymer and lithium ion batteries.
These batteries are of particular interest
because they take advantage of large
power capacity available from lithium
batteries without the safety problems
encountered when these batteries contain
lithium metal, a very reactive and volatile
material when exposed to air and
moisture.
Nonrechargeable (primary) lithium
batteries offer improved performance
over alkaline batteries at a slightly higher
cost and have been commercially


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